VINTAGE JUNGLE BIRDS PUZZLE Springbok jigsaw exotic macaw lovebirds toucan RARE

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Seller: sidewaysstairsco ✉️ (1,180) 100%, Location: Santa Ana, California, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 195104825958 VINTAGE JUNGLE BIRDS PUZZLE Springbok jigsaw exotic macaw lovebirds toucan RARE. Check out my other new & used items>>>>>>HERE! (click me) FOR SALE: A rare, vintage jigsaw puzzle featuring exotic birds 1981 "JUNGLE BIRDS" JIGSAW PUZZLE BY SPRINGBOK (HALLMARK CARDS) DETAILS: Brand: Springbok / Hallmark Cards, Inc. Item No.: PZL2101 Piece Count: Over 500 Complete: Yes Size: 20.25 x 20.25 inches Title: "Jungle Birds" Subject: Exotic Birds Artist: GWYN Year Released: 1981 Made In: USA These birds aren't for the birds! Do yourself a favor and take on this challenging and delicious looking, vintage ice cream puzzle by Springbok. "Do Yourself A Flavor" is an over 500 piece jigsaw puzzle that features rows of ice cream cones filled with chocolate and various pastel colored ice cream scoops. As you build the puzzle you will find yourself mesmerized by the flavors – chocolate, vanilla, strawberry, mint chip, cookies and cream, black cherry, butter pecan, pistachio, pineapple and more! Ice cream anyone? This challenging jigsaw from Springbok and It features a dozen jungle or exotic birds with beautifully vibrant, colorful plumages. Artist GYWN features The birds include a citron-crested cockatoo, a hyacinth macaw, a scarlet macaw, a Catalina macaw, two caiques, two red-headed lovebirds, a trio of parakeets and a toucan.  The birds are surrounded by lush jungle foliage. Back features a short story by renowned cyberpunk author! The backside of the puzzle box features a parrot-themed Hawaiian shirt heist short story, aptly named "Aloha", written by imaginative female author Pat Cadigan. Pat Cadigan is an American-British, award-winning science fiction author whose visionary pieces of written art are often identified with the cyberpunk movement. Cadigan's short stories and novels often examine the give and take between the human species' mind and the technology it creates. A retired, rare, quality product of Hallmark Cards Inc. Released under the Springbok brand this jigsaw puzzle was originally sold exclusively at Hallmark Cards store locations beginning in 1981. Every Springbok puzzle features vibrant lithography art and has a non-repeating design with an original pattern of precision-made interlocking pieces. The thick cardboard or chipboard pieces are designed to be put together flawlessly multiple times. "Jungle Birds" has been retired (out-of-print) for some time now and is no longer sold in store (or online) - making it a rare find and collectible! CONDITION: In very good, pre-owned condition and complete. The box has various signs of wear with the worst being the tape-damaged part on the backside. The pieces show minimal signs of use. Please see photos. *To ensure safe delivery all items are carefully packaged before shipping out.* THANK YOU FOR LOOKING. QUESTIONS? JUST ASK. *ALL PHOTOS AND TEXT ARE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF SIDEWAYS STAIRS CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.* "Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves /ˈeɪviːz/, characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5.5 cm (2.2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) ostrich. There are about ten thousand living species, more than half of which are passerine, or "perching" birds. Birds have wings whose development varies according to species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds. Wings, which evolved from forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly, although further evolution has led to the loss of flight in some birds, including ratites, penguins, and diverse endemic island species. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have further evolved for swimming. Birds are feathered theropod dinosaurs and constitute the only known living dinosaurs. Likewise, birds are considered reptiles in the modern cladistic sense of the term, and their closest living relatives are the crocodilians. Birds are descendants of the primitive avialans (whose members include Archaeopteryx) which first appeared about 160 million years ago (mya) in China. According to DNA evidence, modern birds (Neornithes) evolved in the Middle to Late Cretaceous, and diversified dramatically around the time of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 mya, which killed off the pterosaurs and all non-avian dinosaurs.[5] Many social species pass on knowledge across generations, which is considered a form of culture. Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and songs, and participating in such behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of bird species are socially (but not necessarily sexually) monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, and rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous (one male with many females) or, rarely, polyandrous (one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Many species of birds are economically important as food for human consumption and raw material in manufacturing, with domesticated and undomesticated birds being important sources of eggs, meat, and feathers. Songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano (bird excrement) is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120 to 130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry. .. Evolution and classification Main article: Evolution of birds Slab of stone with fossil bones and feather impressions Archaeopteryx lithographica is often considered the oldest known true bird. The first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae.[7] Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use.[8] Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the clade Theropoda.[9] Definition Aves and a sister group, the order Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria. During the late 1990s, Aves was most commonly defined phylogenetically as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica.[10] However, an earlier definition proposed by Jacques Gauthier gained wide currency in the 21st century, and is used by many scientists including adherents to the PhyloCode. Gauthier defined Aves to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds. This was done by excluding most groups known only from fossils, and assigning them, instead, to the broader group Avialae,[11] in part to avoid the uncertainties about the placement of Archaeopteryx in relation to animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs.[citation needed] Gauthier and de Queiroz[12] identified four different definitions for the same biological name "Aves", which is a problem. The authors proposed to reserve the term Aves only for the crown group consisting of the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants, which corresponds to meaning number 4 below. He assigned other names to the other groups.[citation needed]                   Crocodiles         Birds           Turtles           Lizards (including snakes)   The birds' phylogenetic relationships to major living reptile groups     Aves can mean all archosaurs closer to birds than to crocodiles (alternately Avemetatarsalia)     Aves can mean those advanced archosaurs with feathers (alternately Avifilopluma)     Aves can mean those feathered dinosaurs that fly (alternately Avialae)     Aves can mean the last common ancestor of all the currently living birds and all of its descendants (a "crown group", in this sense synonymous with Neornithes) Under the fourth definition Archaeopteryx, traditionally considered one of the earliest members of Aves, is removed from this group, becoming a non-avian dinosaur instead. These proposals have been adopted by many researchers in the field of palaeontology and bird evolution, though the exact definitions applied have been inconsistent. Avialae, initially proposed to replace the traditional fossil content of Aves, is often used synonymously with the vernacular term "bird" by these researchers.[13] Maniraptoromorpha           †Coelurus               †Ornitholestes   Maniraptoriformes           †Ornithomimosauria   Maniraptora           †Alvarezsauridae   Pennaraptora           †Oviraptorosauria         Paraves             Cladogram showing the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau, 2018.[14] Most researchers define Avialae as branch-based clade, though definitions vary. Many authors have used a definition similar to "all theropods closer to birds than to Deinonychus",[15][16] with Troodon being sometimes added as a second external specifier in case it is closer to birds than to Deinonychus.[17] Avialae is also occasionally defined as an apomorphy-based clade (that is, one based on physical characteristics). Jacques Gauthier, who named Avialae in 1986, re-defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered wings used in flapping flight, and the birds that descended from them.[12][18] Despite being currently one of the most widely used, the crown-group definition of Aves has been criticised by some researchers. Lee and Spencer (1997) argued that, contrary to what Gauthier defended, this definition would not increase the stability of the clade and the exact content of Aves will always be uncertain because any defined clade (either crown or not) will have few synapomorphies distinguishing it from its closest relatives. Their alternative definition is synonymous to Avifilopluma.[19] Dinosaurs and the origin of birds Main article: Origin of birds Paraves           †Scansoriopterygidae               †Eosinopteryx   Eumaniraptora           †Jinfengopteryx         †Aurornis         †Dromaeosauridae         †Troodontidae         Avialae         Cladogram following the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau et al., 2015[20] Anchiornis huxleyi is an important source of information on the early evolution of birds in the Late Jurassic period.[21] Based on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds are a specialised subgroup of theropod dinosaurs[22] and, more specifically, members of Maniraptora, a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurids and oviraptorosaurs, among others.[23] As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds, the previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred. Recent discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China, which demonstrate many small theropod feathered dinosaurs, contribute to this ambiguity.[24][25][26] Simplified phylogenetic tree showing the relationship between modern birds and dinosaurs [27] The consensus view in contemporary palaeontology is that the flying theropods, or avialans, are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs, which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids.[28] Together, these form a group called Paraves. Some basal members of Deinonychosauria, such as Microraptor, have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal, have been able to glide, or both.[29][30] Unlike Archaeopteryx and the non-avialan feathered dinosaurs, who primarily ate meat, recent studies suggest that the first avialans were omnivores.[31] The Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found, and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the late 19th century. Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics—teeth, clawed fingers, and a long, lizard-like tail—as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds. It is not considered a direct ancestor of birds, though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor.[32] Early evolution See also: List of fossil bird genera White slab of rock left with cracks and impression of bird feathers and bone, including long paired tail feathers Confuciusornis sanctus, a Cretaceous bird from China that lived 125 million years ago, is the oldest known bird to have a beak.[33] Over 40% of key traits found in modern birds evolved during the 60 million year transition from the earliest bird-line archosaurs to the first maniraptoromorphs, i.e. the first dinosaurs closer to living birds than to Tyrannosaurus rex. The loss of osteoderms otherwise common in archosaurs and acquisition of primitive feathers might have occurred early during this phase.[14][34] After the appearance of Maniraptoromorpha, the next 40 million years marked a continuous reduction of body size and the accumulation of neotenic (juvenile-like) characteristics. Hypercarnivory became increasingly less common while braincases enlarged and forelimbs became longer.[14] The integument evolved into complex, pennaceous feathers.[34] The oldest known paravian (and probably the earliest avialan) fossils come from the Tiaojishan Formation of China, which has been dated to the late Jurassic period (Oxfordian stage), about 160 million years ago. The avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi, Xiaotingia zhengi, and Aurornis xui.[13] The well-known probable early avialan, Archaeopteryx, dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from Germany. Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds, but were later lost during bird evolution. These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or "hind wings" covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in aerial manoeuvreing.[35] Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous period. Many groups retained primitive characteristics, such as clawed wings and teeth, though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups, including modern birds (Aves).[36] Increasingly stiff tails (especially the outermost half) can be seen in the evolution of maniraptoromorphs, and this process culminated in the appearance of the pygostyle, an ossification of fused tail vertebrae.[14] In the late Cretaceous, about 100 million years ago, the ancestors of all modern birds evolved a more open pelvis, allowing them to lay larger eggs compared to body size.[37] Around 95 million years ago, they evolved a better sense of smell.[38] A third stage of bird evolution starting with Ornithothoraces (the "bird-chested" avialans) can be associated with the refining of aerodynamics and flight capabilities, and the loss or co-ossification of several skeletal features. Particularly significant are the development of an enlarged, keeled sternum and the alula, and the loss of grasping hands. [14] Avialae           †Anchiornis               †Archaeopteryx               †Xiaotingia               †Rahonavis                     †Jeholornis         †Jixiangornis     Euavialae           †Balaur   Avebrevicauda           †Zhongjianornis               †Sapeornis   Pygostylia           †Confuciusornithiformes                     †Protopteryx         †Pengornis           Ornithothoraces                       Cladogram following the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau et al., 2015[20] Early diversity of bird ancestors See also: Protobirds and Avialae Ornithothoraces           †Enantiornithes   Euornithes           †Archaeorhynchus   Ornithuromorpha           †Patagopteryx         †Vorona               †Schizooura               †Hongshanornithidae               †Jianchangornis               †Songlingornithidae               †Gansus               †Apsaravis   Ornithurae           †Hesperornithes               †Ichthyornis               †Vegavis         Aves                           Mesozoic bird phylogeny simplified after Wang et al., 2015's phylogenetic analysis[39] Ichthyornis, which lived 93 million years ago, was the first known prehistoric bird relative preserved with teeth. The first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed avialans to evolve were the Enantiornithes, or "opposite birds", so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds. Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches, from sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and seed-eaters. While they were the dominant group of avialans during the Cretaceous period, enantiornithes became extinct along with many other dinosaur groups at the end of the Mesozoic era.[36] Many species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify, the Euornithes (meaning "true birds", because they include the ancestors of modern birds), were semi-aquatic and specialised in eating fish and other small aquatic organisms. Unlike the Enantiornithes, which dominated land-based and arboreal habitats, most early euornithes lacked perching adaptations and seem to have included shorebird-like species, waders, and swimming and diving species.[citation needed] The latter included the superficially gull-like Ichthyornis[40] and the Hesperornithiformes, which became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic.[36] The early euornithes also saw the development of many traits associated with modern birds, like strongly keeled breastbones, toothless, beaked portions of their jaws (though most non-avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws).[41] Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true pygostyle and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers,[42] which may have replaced the "hind wing" as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking in flight.[35] A study on mosaic evolution in the avian skull found that the last common ancestor of all Neornithes might have had a beak similar to that of the modern hook-billed vanga and a skull similar to that of the Eurasian golden oriole. As both species are small aerial and canopy foraging omnivores, a similar ecological niche was inferred for this hypothetical ancestor.[43] Diversification of modern birds See also: Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds and dinosaur classification Aves     Palaeognathae           Struthioniformes         Tinamiformes     Neognathae           Other birds (Neoaves)   Galloanserae           Anseriformes         Galliformes         Basal divergences of modern birds based on Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy All modern birds lie within the crown group Aves (alternately Neornithes), which has two subdivisions: the Palaeognathae, which includes the flightless ratites (such as the ostriches) and the weak-flying tinamous, and the extremely diverse Neognathae, containing all other birds.[44] These two subdivisions have variously been given the rank of superorder,[45] cohort,[9] or infraclass.[46] Depending on the taxonomic viewpoint, the number of known living bird species varies anywhere from 9,800[47] to 10,758.[48] The discovery of Vegavis from the Maastrichtian, the last stage of the Late Cretaceous proved that the diversification of modern birds started before the Cenozoic era.[49] The affinities of an earlier fossil, the possible galliform Austinornis lentus, dated to about 85 million years ago,[50] are still too controversial to provide a fossil evidence of modern bird diversification. In 2020, Asteriornis from the Maastrichtian was described, it appears to be a close relative of Galloanserae, the earliest diverging lineage within Neognathae.[1] Most studies agree on a Cretaceous age for the most recent common ancestor of modern birds but estimates range from the Early Cretaceous[3][51] to the latest Late Cretaceous.[52][4] Similarly, there is no agreement on whether most of the early diversification of modern birds occurred before or after the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.[53] This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence; most molecular dating studies suggests a Cretaceous evolutionary radiation, while fossil evidence points to a Cenozoic radiation (the so-called 'rocks' versus 'clocks' controversy). Previous attempts to reconcile molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial,[53][54] but more recent estimates, using a more comprehensive sample of fossils and a new way of calibrating molecular clocks, showed that while according to some studies, modern birds originated early in the Late Cretaceous in Western Gondwana, a pulse of diversification in all major groups occurred around the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event. Modern birds expanded from West Gondwana to the Laurasia through two routes. One route was an Antarctic interchange in the Paleogene. This can be confirmed with the presence of multiple avian groups in Australia and New Zealand. The other route was probably through North America, via land bridges, during the Paleocene. This allowed the expansion and diversification of Neornithes into the Holarctic and Paleotropics.[55] On the other hand, the occurrence of Asteriornis in the Northern Hemisphere challenges biogeographical hypotheses of a Gondwanan origin of crown birds.[1] Classification of bird orders See also: List of birds Cladogram of modern bird relationships based on Braun & Kimball (2021)[56] Aves           Palaeognathae (Ostriches and relatives) Struthio camelus - Etosha 2014 (1) white background.jpg   Neognathae     Galloanserae           Galliformes (chickens and relatives) Red Junglefowl by George Edward Lodge white background.png         Anseriformes (ducks and relatives) Cuvier-97-Canard colvert.jpg     Neoaves     Mirandornithes           Phoenicopteriformes (flamingos)Cuvier-87-Flamant rouge.jpg         Podicipediformes (grebes)Podiceps cristatus Naumann white background.jpg     Columbimorphae           Columbiformes (pigeons) Meyers grosses Konversations-Lexikon - ein Nachschlagewerk des allgemeinen Wissens (1908) (Antwerpener Breiftaube).jpg               Mesitornithiformes (mesites)Monias benschi 1912 white background.jpg         Pterocliformes (sandgrouse)Pterocles quadricinctus white background.jpg       Passerea                 Otidiformes (bustards)Cayley Ardeotis australis flipped.jpg         Cuculiformes (cuckoos)British birds in their haunts (Cuculus canorus).jpg           Musophagiformes (turacos)Planches enluminées d'histoire naturelle (1765) (Tauraco persa).jpg         Gruiformes (rails and cranes)Cuvier-72-Grue cendrée.jpg         Charadriiformes (waders and relatives)D'Orbigny-Mouette rieuse et Bec-en-ciseaux white background.jpg         Opisthocomiformes (hoatzin)Cuvier-59-Hoazin huppé.jpg         Strisores (swifts, hummingbirds, nightjars and allies) Steatornis caripensis MHNT ZON STEA 1.jpg   Phaethoquornithes     Eurypygimorphae           Phaethontiformes (tropicbirds)Cuvier-95-Phaeton à bec rouge.jpg         Eurypygiformes (sunbittern and kagu)Cuvier-72-Caurale soleil.jpg     Aequornithes           Gaviiformes[57] (loons)         Austrodyptornithes           Procellariiformes (albatrosses and petrels) Thalassarche chlororhynchos 1838.jpg         Sphenisciformes (penguins) Chinstrap Penguin white background.jpg                 Ciconiiformes (storks) Weißstorch (Ciconia ciconia) white background.jpg               Suliformes (boobies, cormorants, etc.) Cormorant in Strunjan, white background.png         Pelecaniformes (pelicans, herons & ibises) Spot-billed pelican takeoff white background.jpg           (Ardeae) Telluraves     Accipitrimorphae           Cathartiformes (New World vultures)Vintage Vulture Drawing white background.jpg         Accipitriformes (hawks and relatives)Golden Eagle Illustration white background.jpg           Strigiformes (owls)Cuvier-12-Hibou à huppe courte.jpg   Coraciimorphae           Coliiformes (mouse birds)   Cavitaves           Leptosomiformes (cuckoo roller)               Trogoniformes (trogons and quetzals)Harpactes fasciatus 1838 white background.jpg   Picocoraciae           Bucerotiformes (hornbills and relatives)   Picodynastornithes           Coraciiformes (kingfishers and relatives)Cuvier-46-Martin-pêcheur d'Europe.jpg         Piciformes (woodpeckers and relatives)             Australaves           Cariamiformes (seriemas)Cariama cristata 1838 white background.jpg   Eufalconimorphae           Falconiformes (falcons)NewZealandFalconBuller white background.jpg   Psittacopasserae           Psittaciformes (parrots)Pyrrhura lucianii - Castelnau 2.jpg         Passeriformes (passerines)Cuvier-33-Moineau domestique.jpg                   The classification of birds is a contentious issue. Sibley and Ahlquist's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds,[58] although it is frequently debated and constantly revised. Most evidence seems to suggest the assignment of orders is accurate,[59] but scientists disagree about the relationships between the orders themselves; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem, but no strong consensus has emerged. More recently, new fossil and molecular evidence is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders.[52][60] Genomics See also: list of sequenced animal genomes As of 2010, the genome had been sequenced for only two birds, the chicken and the zebra finch. As of 2022 the genomes of 542 species of birds had been completed. At least one genome has been sequenced from every order.[61][62] These include at least one species in about 90% of extant avian families (218 out of 236 families recognised by the Howard and Moore Checklist).[63] Being able to sequence and compare whole genomes gives researchers many types of information, about genes, the DNA that regulates the genes, and their evolutionary history. This has led to reconsideration of some of the classifications that were based solely on the identification of protein-coding genes. Waterbirds such as pelicans and flamingos, for example, may have in common specific adaptations suited to their environment that were developed independently.[61][62] Distribution See also: Lists of birds by region and List of birds by population small bird withpale belly and breast and patterned wing and head stands on concrete The range of the house sparrow has expanded dramatically due to human activities.[64] Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents, reaching their southern extreme in the snow petrel's breeding colonies up to 440 kilometres (270 mi) inland in Antarctica.[65] The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions. It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher speciation rates in the tropics; however recent studies found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater extinction rates than in the tropics.[66] Many species migrate annually over great distances and across oceans; several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world's oceans and in them, and some seabird species come ashore only to breed,[67] while some penguins have been recorded diving up to 300 metres (980 ft) deep.[68] Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been introduced by humans. Some of these introductions have been deliberate; the ring-necked pheasant, for example, has been introduced around the world as a game bird.[69] Others have been accidental, such as the establishment of wild monk parakeets in several North American cities after their escape from captivity.[70] Some species, including cattle egret,[71] yellow-headed caracara[72] and galah,[73] have spread naturally far beyond their original ranges as agricultural expansion created alternative habitats although modern practices of intensive agriculture have negatively impacted farmland bird populations.[74] Anatomy and physiology Main articles: Bird anatomy and Bird vision See also: Egg tooth External anatomy of a bird (example: yellow-wattled lapwing): 1 Beak, 2 Head, 3 Iris, 4 Pupil, 5 Mantle, 6 Lesser coverts, 7 Scapulars, 8 Median coverts, 9 Tertials, 10 Rump, 11 Primaries, 12 Vent, 13 Thigh, 14 Tibio-tarsal articulation, 15 Tarsus, 16 Foot, 17 Tibia, 18 Belly, 19 Flanks, 20 Breast, 21 Throat, 22 Wattle, 23 Eyestripe Compared with other vertebrates, birds have a body plan that shows many unusual adaptations, mostly to facilitate flight. Skeletal system Main article: Bird_anatomy § Skeletal_system The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones. They have large air-filled cavities (called pneumatic cavities) which connect with the respiratory system.[75] The skull bones in adults are fused and do not show cranial sutures.[76] The orbital cavities that house the eyeballs are large and separated from each other by a bony septum (partition). The spine has cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical (neck) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible, but movement is reduced in the anterior thoracic vertebrae and absent in the later vertebrae.[77] The last few are fused with the pelvis to form the synsacrum.[76] The ribs are flattened and the sternum is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders. The forelimbs are modified into wings.[78] The wings are more or less developed depending on the species; the only known groups that lost their wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds.[79] Excretory system Like the reptiles, birds are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid, instead of urea or ammonia, through the ureters into the intestine. Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral opening and (with exception of the ostrich) uric acid is excreted along with faeces as a semisolid waste.[80][81][82] However, birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia.[83] They also excrete creatine, rather than creatinine like mammals.[76] This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's cloaca.[84][85] The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, most birds mate by joining cloaca, and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many species of birds regurgitate pellets.[86] It is a common but not universal feature of altricial passerine nestlings (born helpless, under constant parental care) that instead of excreting directly into the nest, they produce a fecal sac. This is a mucus-covered pouch that allows parents to either dispose of the waste outside the nest or to recycle the waste through their own digestive system.[87] Reproductive system Males within Palaeognathae (with the exception of the kiwis), the Anseriformes (with the exception of screamers), and in rudimentary forms in Galliformes (but fully developed in Cracidae) possess a penis, which is never present in Neoaves.[88][89] The length is thought to be related to sperm competition.[90] When not copulating, it is hidden within the proctodeum compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. Female birds have sperm storage tubules[91] that allow sperm to remain viable long after copulation, a hundred days in some species.[92] Sperm from multiple males may compete through this mechanism. Most female birds have a single ovary and a single oviduct, both on the left side,[93] but there are exceptions: species in at least 16 different orders of birds have two ovaries. Even these species, however, tend to have a single oviduct.[93] It has been speculated that this might be an adaptation to flight, but males have two testes, and it is also observed that the gonads in both sexes decrease dramatically in size outside the breeding season.[94][95] Also terrestrial birds generally have a single ovary, as does the platypus, an egg-laying mammal. A more likely explanation is that the egg develops a shell while passing through the oviduct over a period of about a day, so that if two eggs were to develop at the same time, there would be a risk to survival.[93] While rare, mostly abortive, parthenogenesis is not unknown in birds and eggs can be diploid, automictic and results in male offspring.[96] Birds are solely gonochoric.[97] Meaning they have two sexes: either female or male. The sex of birds is determined by the Z and W sex chromosomes, rather than by the X and Y chromosomes present in mammals. Male birds have two Z chromosomes (ZZ), and female birds have a W chromosome and a Z chromosome (WZ).[76] In nearly all species of birds, an individual's sex is determined at fertilisation. However, one 2007 study claimed to demonstrate temperature-dependent sex determination among the Australian brushturkey, for which higher temperatures during incubation resulted in a higher female-to-male sex ratio.[98] This, however, was later proven to not be the case. These birds do not exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, but temperature-dependent sex mortality.[99] Respiratory and circulatory systems Birds have one of the most complex respiratory systems of all animal groups.[76] Upon inhalation, 75% of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air. The other 25% of the air goes directly into the lungs. When the bird exhales, the used air flows out of the lungs and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs. Thus, a bird's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation.[100] Sound production is achieved using the syrinx, a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes which diverges from the lower end of the trachea;[101] the trachea being elongated in some species, increasing the volume of vocalisations and the perception of the bird's size.[102] In birds, the main arteries taking blood away from the heart originate from the right aortic arch (or pharyngeal arch), unlike in the mammals where the left aortic arch forms this part of the aorta.[76] The postcava receives blood from the limbs via the renal portal system. Unlike in mammals, the circulating red blood cells in birds retain their nucleus.[103] Heart type and features Didactic model of an avian heart The avian circulatory system is driven by a four-chambered, myogenic heart contained in a fibrous pericardial sac. This pericardial sac is filled with a serous fluid for lubrication.[104] The heart itself is divided into a right and left half, each with an atrium and ventricle. The atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by atrioventricular valves which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during contraction. Being myogenic, the heart's pace is maintained by pacemaker cells found in the sinoatrial node, located on the right atrium.[citation needed] The sinoatrial node uses calcium to cause a depolarising signal transduction pathway from the atrium through right and left atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the ventricles. The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are made up of thick bundles of muscular layers. Much like a mammalian heart, the avian heart is composed of endocardial, myocardial and epicardial layers.[104] The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the ventricle walls, due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body. Avian hearts are generally larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass. This adaptation allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need associated with flight.[105] Organisation Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals. As a result, birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal.[105] The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular contractions, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo vasoconstriction, and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body.[106] As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow. Blood travels through the arterioles and moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur.[citation needed] Capillaries are organised into capillary beds in tissues; it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds, blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues. Once the blood has become deoxygenated, it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation bringing blood back to the heart.[106] Once the blood reaches the heart, it moves first into the right atrium, then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body.[citation needed] The nictitating membrane as it covers the eye of a masked lapwing Nervous system The nervous system is large relative to the bird's size.[76] The most developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight-related functions, while the cerebellum coordinates movement and the cerebrum controls behaviour patterns, navigation, mating and nest building. Most birds have a poor sense of smell[107] with notable exceptions including kiwis,[108] New World vultures[109] and tubenoses.[110] The avian visual system is usually highly developed. Water birds have special flexible lenses, allowing accommodation for vision in air and water.[76] Some species also have dual fovea. Birds are tetrachromatic, possessing ultraviolet (UV) sensitive cone cells in the eye as well as green, red and blue ones.[111] They also have double cones, likely to mediate achromatic vision.[112] Many birds show plumage patterns in ultraviolet that are invisible to the human eye; some birds whose sexes appear similar to the naked eye are distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their feathers. Male blue tits have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers.[113] Ultraviolet light is also used in foraging—kestrels have been shown to search for prey by detecting the UV reflective urine trail marks left on the ground by rodents.[114] With the exception of pigeons and a few other species,[115] the eyelids of birds are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane, a third eyelid that moves horizontally.[116] The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds.[76] The bird retina has a fan shaped blood supply system called the pecten.[76] Eyes of most birds are large, not very round and capable of only limited movement in the orbits,[76] typically 10–20°.[117] Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field, while birds with eyes on the front of their heads, such as owls, have binocular vision and can estimate the depth of field.[117][118] The avian ear lacks external pinnae but is covered by feathers, although in some birds, such as the Asio, Bubo and Otus owls, these feathers form tufts which resemble ears. The inner ear has a cochlea, but it is not spiral as in mammals.[119] Defence and intraspecific combat A few species are able to use chemical defences against predators; some Procellariiformes can eject an unpleasant stomach oil against an aggressor,[120] and some species of pitohuis from New Guinea have a powerful neurotoxin in their skin and feathers.[121] A lack of field observations limit our knowledge, but intraspecific conflicts are known to sometimes result in injury or death.[122] The screamers (Anhimidae), some jacanas (Jacana, Hydrophasianus), the spur-winged goose (Plectropterus), the torrent duck (Merganetta) and nine species of lapwing (Vanellus) use a sharp spur on the wing as a weapon. The steamer ducks (Tachyeres), geese and swans (Anserinae), the solitaire (Pezophaps), sheathbills (Chionis), some guans (Crax) and stone curlews (Burhinus) use a bony knob on the alular metacarpal to punch and hammer opponents.[122] The jacanas Actophilornis and Irediparra have an expanded, blade-like radius. The extinct Xenicibis was unique in having an elongate forelimb and massive hand which likely functioned in combat or defence as a jointed club or flail. Swans, for instance, may strike with the bony spurs and bite when defending eggs or young.[122] Feathers, plumage, and scales Main articles: Feather, Flight feather, and Down feather Owl with eyes closed in front of similarly coloured tree trunk partly obscured by green leaves The disruptively patterned plumage of the African scops owl allows it to blend in with its surroundings. Feathers are a feature characteristic of birds (though also present in some dinosaurs not currently considered to be true birds). They facilitate flight, provide insulation that aids in thermoregulation, and are used in display, camouflage, and signalling.[76] There are several types of feathers, each serving its own set of purposes. Feathers are epidermal growths attached to the skin and arise only in specific tracts of skin called pterylae. The distribution pattern of these feather tracts (pterylosis) is used in taxonomy and systematics. The arrangement and appearance of feathers on the body, called plumage, may vary within species by age, social status,[123] and sex.[124] Plumage is regularly moulted; the standard plumage of a bird that has moulted after breeding is known as the "non-breeding" plumage, or—in the Humphrey–Parkes terminology—"basic" plumage; breeding plumages or variations of the basic plumage are known under the Humphrey–Parkes system as "alternate" plumages.[125] Moulting is annual in most species, although some may have two moults a year, and large birds of prey may moult only once every few years. Moulting patterns vary across species. In passerines, flight feathers are replaced one at a time with the innermost primary being the first. When the fifth of sixth primary is replaced, the outermost tertiaries begin to drop. After the innermost tertiaries are moulted, the secondaries starting from the innermost begin to drop and this proceeds to the outer feathers (centrifugal moult). The greater primary coverts are moulted in synchrony with the primary that they overlap.[126] A small number of species, such as ducks and geese, lose all of their flight feathers at once, temporarily becoming flightless.[127] As a general rule, the tail feathers are moulted and replaced starting with the innermost pair.[126] Centripetal moults of tail feathers are however seen in the Phasianidae.[128] The centrifugal moult is modified in the tail feathers of woodpeckers and treecreepers, in that it begins with the second innermost pair of feathers and finishes with the central pair of feathers so that the bird maintains a functional climbing tail.[126][129] The general pattern seen in passerines is that the primaries are replaced outward, secondaries inward, and the tail from centre outward.[130] Before nesting, the females of most bird species gain a bare brood patch by losing feathers close to the belly. The skin there is well supplied with blood vessels and helps the bird in incubation.[131] Red parrot with yellow bill and wing feathers in bill Red lory preening Feathers require maintenance and birds preen or groom them daily, spending an average of around 9% of their daily time on this.[132] The bill is used to brush away foreign particles and to apply waxy secretions from the uropygial gland; these secretions protect the feathers' flexibility and act as an antimicrobial agent, inhibiting the growth of feather-degrading bacteria.[133] This may be supplemented with the secretions of formic acid from ants, which birds receive through a behaviour known as anting, to remove feather parasites.[134] The scales of birds are composed of the same keratin as beaks, claws, and spurs. They are found mainly on the toes and metatarsus, but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds. Most bird scales do not overlap significantly, except in the cases of kingfishers and woodpeckers. The scales of birds are thought to be homologous to those of reptiles and mammals.[135] Flight Main articles: Bird flight and Flightless birds Black bird with white chest in flight with wings facing down and tail fanned and down pointing Restless flycatcher in the downstroke of flapping flight Most birds can fly, which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrate classes. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for searching for food and for escaping from predators. Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a lightweight skeleton, two large flight muscles, the pectoralis (which accounts for 15% of the total mass of the bird) and the supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb (wing) that serves as an aerofoil.[76] Wing shape and size generally determine a bird's flight style and performance; many birds combine powered, flapping flight with less energy-intensive soaring flight. About 60 extant bird species are flightless, as were many extinct birds.[136] Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands, most likely due to limited resources and the absence of mammalian land predators.[137] Flightlessnes is almost exclusively correlated with gigantism due to an island's inheren condition of isolation.[138] Although flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to "fly" through the water, as do some flight-capable birds such as auks, shearwaters and dippers.[139] Behaviour Most birds are diurnal, but some birds, such as many species of owls and nightjars, are nocturnal or crepuscular (active during twilight hours), and many coastal waders feed when the tides are appropriate, by day or night.... Ecology Gran Canaria blue chaffinch, an example of a bird highly specialised in its habitat, in this case in the Canarian pine forests Birds occupy a wide range of ecological positions.[189] While some birds are generalists, others are highly specialised in their habitat or food requirements. Even within a single habitat, such as a forest, the niches occupied by different species of birds vary, with some species feeding in the forest canopy, others beneath the canopy, and still others on the forest floor. Forest birds may be insectivores, frugivores, or nectarivores. Aquatic birds generally feed by fishing, plant eating, and piracy or kleptoparasitism. Many grassland birds are granivores. Birds of prey specialise in hunting mammals or other birds, while vultures are specialised scavengers. Birds are also preyed upon by a range of mammals including a few avivorous bats.[256] A wide range of endo- and ectoparasites depend on birds and some parasites that are transmitted from parent to young have co-evolved and show host-specificity.[257][258] Some nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators, and many frugivores play a key role in seed dispersal.[259] Plants and pollinating birds often coevolve,[260] and in some cases a flower's primary pollinator is the only species capable of reaching its nectar.[261] Birds are often important to island ecology. Birds have frequently reached islands that mammals have not; on those islands, birds may fulfil ecological roles typically played by larger animals. For example, in New Zealand nine species of moa were important browsers, as are the kererū and kokako today.[259] Today the plants of New Zealand retain the defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa.[262] Many birds act as ecosystem engineers through the construction of nests, which provide important microhabitats and food for hundreds of species of invertebrates.[263][264] Nesting seabirds may affect the ecology of islands and surrounding seas, principally through the concentration of large quantities of guano, which may enrich the local soil[265] and the surrounding seas.[266] A wide variety of avian ecology field methods, including counts, nest monitoring, and capturing and marking, are used for researching avian ecology.[267] Relationship with humans Main article: Birds in culture Two rows of cages in a dark barn with many white chickens in each cage Industrial farming of chickens Since birds are highly visible and common animals, humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man.[268] Sometimes, these relationships are mutualistic, like the cooperative honey-gathering among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana.[269] Other times, they may be commensal, as when species such as the house sparrow[270] have benefited from human activities. Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests,[271] and some pose an aviation hazard.[272] Human activities can also be detrimental, and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction (hunting, avian lead poisoning, pesticides, roadkill, wind turbine kills[273] and predation by pet cats and dogs are common causes of death for birds).[274] Birds can act as vectors for spreading diseases such as psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, mycobacteriosis (avian tuberculosis), avian influenza (bird flu), giardiasis, and cryptosporidiosis over long distances. Some of these are zoonotic diseases that can also be transmitted to humans.[275] Economic importance See also: Pet § Birds Illustration of fisherman on raft with pole for punting and numerous black birds on raft The use of cormorants by Asian fishermen is in steep decline but survives in some areas as a tourist attraction. Domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs, called poultry, are the largest source of animal protein eaten by humans; in 2003, 76 million tons of poultry and 61 million tons of eggs were produced worldwide.[276] Chickens account for much of human poultry consumption, though domesticated turkeys, ducks, and geese are also relatively common.[citation needed] Many species of birds are also hunted for meat. Bird hunting is primarily a recreational activity except in extremely undeveloped areas. The most important birds hunted in North and South America are waterfowl; other widely hunted birds include pheasants, wild turkeys, quail, doves, partridge, grouse, snipe, and woodcock.[citation needed] Muttonbirding is also popular in Australia and New Zealand.[277] Although some hunting, such as that of muttonbirds, may be sustainable, hunting has led to the extinction or endangerment of dozens of species.[278] Other commercially valuable products from birds include feathers (especially the down of geese and ducks), which are used as insulation in clothing and bedding, and seabird faeces (guano), which is a valuable source of phosphorus and nitrogen. The War of the Pacific, sometimes called the Guano War, was fought in part over the control of guano deposits.[279] Birds have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical purposes. Colourful birds, such as parrots and mynas, are bred in captivity or kept as pets, a practice that has led to the illegal trafficking of some endangered species.[280] Falcons and cormorants have long been used for hunting and fishing, respectively. Messenger pigeons, used since at least 1 AD, remained important as recently as World War II. Today, such activities are more common either as hobbies, for entertainment and tourism,[281] Amateur bird enthusiasts (called birdwatchers, twitchers or, more commonly, birders) number in the millions.[282] Many homeowners erect bird feeders near their homes to attract various species. Bird feeding has grown into a multimillion-dollar industry; for example, an estimated 75% of households in Britain provide food for birds at some point during the winter.[283] In religion and mythology Woodcut of three long-legged and long-necked birds The 3 of Birds by the Master of the Playing Cards, 15th-century Germany Birds play prominent and diverse roles in religion and mythology. In religion, birds may serve as either messengers or priests and leaders for a deity, such as in the Cult of Makemake, in which the Tangata manu of Easter Island served as chiefs[284] or as attendants, as in the case of Hugin and Munin, the two common ravens who whispered news into the ears of the Norse god Odin. In several civilisations of ancient Italy, particularly Etruscan and Roman religion, priests were involved in augury, or interpreting the words of birds while the "auspex" (from which the word "auspicious" is derived) watched their activities to foretell events.[285] They may also serve as religious symbols, as when Jonah (Hebrew: יונה, dove) embodied the fright, passivity, mourning, and beauty traditionally associated with doves.[286] Birds have themselves been deified, as in the case of the common peacock, which is perceived as Mother Earth by the people of southern India.[287] In the ancient world, doves were used as symbols of the Mesopotamian goddess Inanna (later known as Ishtar),[288][289] the Canaanite mother goddess Asherah,[288][289][290] and the Greek goddess Aphrodite.[288][289][291][292][293] In ancient Greece, Athena, the goddess of wisdom and patron deity of the city of Athens, had a little owl as her symbol.[294][295][296] In religious images preserved from the Inca and Tiwanaku empires, birds are depicted in the process of transgressing boundaries between earthly and underground spiritual realms.[297] Indigenous peoples of the central Andes maintain legends of birds passing to and from metaphysical worlds.[297] In culture and folklore Painted tiles with design of birds from Qajar dynasty Birds have featured in culture and art since prehistoric times, when they were represented in early cave paintings.[298] Some birds have been perceived as monsters, including the mythological Roc and the Māori's legendary Pouākai, a giant bird capable of snatching humans.[299] Birds were later used as symbols of power, as in the magnificent Peacock Throne of the Mughal and Persian emperors.[300] With the advent of scientific interest in birds, many paintings of birds were commissioned for books.[citation needed] Among the most famous of these bird artists was John James Audubon, whose paintings of North American birds were a great commercial success in Europe and who later lent his name to the National Audubon Society.[301] Birds are also important figures in poetry; for example, Homer incorporated nightingales into his Odyssey, and Catullus used a sparrow as an erotic symbol in his Catullus 2.[302] The relationship between an albatross and a sailor is the central theme of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which led to the use of the term as a metaphor for a 'burden'.[303] Other English metaphors derive from birds; vulture funds and vulture investors, for instance, take their name from the scavenging vulture.[304] Perceptions of bird species vary across cultures. Owls are associated with bad luck, witchcraft, and death in parts of Africa,[305] but are regarded as wise across much of Europe.[306] Hoopoes were considered sacred in Ancient Egypt and symbols of virtue in Persia, but were thought of as thieves across much of Europe and harbingers of war in Scandinavia.[307] In heraldry, birds, especially eagles, often appear in coats of arms.[308] In music Main article: Birds in music In music, birdsong has influenced composers and musicians in several ways: they can be inspired by birdsong; they can intentionally imitate bird song in a composition, as Vivaldi, Messiaen, and Beethoven did, along with many later composers; they can incorporate recordings of birds into their works, as Ottorino Respighi first did; or like Beatrice Harrison and David Rothenberg, they can duet with birds." (wikipedia.org) "A jigsaw puzzle is a tiling puzzle that requires the assembly of often oddly shaped interlocking and mosaiced pieces, each of which typically has a portion of a picture; when assembled, they produce a complete picture. In the 18th century, jigsaw puzzles were created by painting a picture on a flat, rectangular piece of wood, then cutting it into small pieces. Despite the name, a jigsaw was never used. John Spilsbury, a London cartographer and engraver, is credited with commercialising jigsaw puzzles around 1760.[1] They have since come to be made primarily of cardboard. Typical images on jigsaw puzzles include scenes from nature, buildings, and repetitive designs—castles and mountains are common, as well as other traditional subjects. However, any picture can be used. Artisan puzzle-makers and companies using technologies for one-off and small print-run puzzles utilize a wide range of subject matter, including optical illusions, unusual art, and personal photographs. In addition to traditional flat, two-dimensional puzzles, three-dimensional puzzles have entered large-scale production, including spherical puzzles and architectural recreations. A range of jigsaw puzzle accessories including boards, cases, frames, and roll-up mats has become available to assist jigsaw puzzle enthusiasts. While most assembled puzzles are disassembled for reuse, they can also be attached to a backing with adhesive and displayed as art. ... History John Spilsbury's "Europe divided into its kingdoms, etc." (1766). He created the jigsaw puzzle for educational purposes, and called them "Dissected Maps".[2][3] John Spilsbury is believed to have produced the first jigsaw puzzle around 1760, using a marquetry saw.[1] Early puzzles, known as dissections, were produced by mounting maps on sheets of hardwood and cutting along national boundaries, creating a puzzle useful for teaching geography.[1] Royal governess Lady Charlotte Finch used such "dissected maps" to teach the children of King George III and Queen Charlotte[4][5] Cardboard jigsaw puzzles appeared in the late 1800s, but were slow to replace wooden ones because manufacturers felt that cardboard puzzles would be perceived as low-quality, and because profit margins on wooden jigsaws were larger.[1] British printed puzzle from 1874. The name "jigsaw" came to be associated with the puzzle around 1880 when fretsaws became the tool of choice for cutting the shapes. Since fretsaws are distinct from jigsaws, the name appears to be a misnomer.[1] Wooden jigsaw pieces, cut by hand Jigsaw puzzles soared in popularity during the Great Depression, as they provided a cheap, long-lasting, recyclable form of entertainment.[1][6] It was around this time that jigsaws evolved to become more complex and appealing to adults.[1] They were also given away in product promotions and used in advertising, with customers completing an image of the promoted product.[1][6] Sales of wooden puzzles fell after World War II as improved wages led to price increases, while improvements in manufacturing processes made paperboard jigsaws more attractive.[6] Demand for jigsaw puzzles saw a surge, comparable to that of the Great Depression, during the stay-at-home orders.[7][8] Modern construction Paperboard jigsaw pieces Most modern jigsaw puzzles are made of paperboard as they are easier and cheaper to mass-produce. An enlarged photograph or printed reproduction of a painting or other two-dimensional artwork is glued to cardboard, which is then fed into a press. The press forces a set of hardened steel blades of the desired pattern, called a puzzle die, through the board until fully cut. The puzzle die is a flat board, often made from plywood, with slots cut or burned in the same shape as the knives that are used. The knives are set into the slots and covered in a compressible material, typically foam rubber, which ejects the cut puzzle pieces. The cutting process is similar to making shaped cookies with a cookie cutter. However, the forces involved are tremendously greater: A typical 1000-piece puzzle requires upwards of 700 tons of force to push the die through the board. Beginning in the 1930s, jigsaw puzzles were cut using large hydraulic presses that now cost hundreds of thousands of dollars. The precise cuts gave a snug fit, but the cost limited jigsaw puzzle production to large corporations. Recent roller-press methods achieve the same results at a lower cost.[citation needed] New technology has also enabled laser-cutting of wooden or acrylic jigsaw puzzles. The advantage is that the puzzle can be custom-cut to any size or shape, with any number or average size of pieces. Many museums have laser-cut acrylic puzzles made of some of their art so visiting children can assemble puzzles of the images on display. Acrylic pieces are very durable, waterproof, and can withstand continued use without the image degrading. Also, because the print and cut patterns are computer-based, missing pieces can easily be remade. By the early 1960s, Tower Press was the world's largest jigsaw puzzle maker; it was acquired by Waddingtons in 1969.[9] Numerous smaller-scale puzzle makers work in artisanal styles, handcrafting and handcutting their creations.[10][11][12][13] Variations Jigsaw puzzle software allowing rotation of pieces A three-dimensional puzzle composed of several two-dimensional puzzles stacked on top of one another A puzzle without a picture Jigsaw puzzles come in a variety of sizes. Among those marketed to adults, 300-, 500- and 750-piece puzzles are considered "smaller". More sophisticated, but still common, puzzles come in sizes of 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,500, 8,000, 9,000, 13,200, 18,000, 24,000, 32,000 and 40,000 pieces. Jigsaw puzzles geared towards children typically have many fewer pieces and are typically much larger. For very young children, puzzles with as few as 4 to 9 large pieces (so as not to be a choking hazard) are standard. They are usually made of wood or plastic for durability and can be cleaned without damage. The most common layout for a thousand-piece puzzle is 38 pieces by 27 pieces, for an actual total of 1,026 pieces. Most 500-piece puzzles are 27 pieces by 19 pieces. A few puzzles are double-sided so they can be solved from either side—adding complexity, as the enthusiast must determine if they are looking at the right side of each piece. "Family puzzles" of 100–550 pieces use an assortment of small, medium and large pieces, with each size going in one direction or towards the middle of the puzzle. This allows a family of different skill levels and hand sizes to work on the puzzle together. Companies like Springbok, Cobble Hill, Ravensburger and Suns Out make this type of specialty puzzle. There are also three-dimensional jigsaw puzzles. Many are made of wood or styrofoam and require the puzzle to be solved in a particular order, as some pieces will not fit if others are already in place. One type of 3-D jigsaw puzzle is a puzzle globe, often made of plastic. Like 2-D puzzles, the assembled pieces form a single layer, but the final form is three-dimensional. Most globe puzzles have designs representing spherical shapes such as the Earth, the Moon, and historical globes of the Earth. Also common are puzzle boxes, simple three-dimensional puzzles with a small drawer or box in the center for storage. Jigsaw puzzles can vary significantly in price depending on their complexity, number of pieces, and brand. In the US, children's puzzles can start around $5, while larger ones can be closer to $50. The most expensive puzzle to date was sold for $US27,000 in 2005 at a charity auction for The Golden Retriever Foundation.[14] Several word-puzzle games use pieces similar to those in jigsaw puzzles. Examples include Alfa-Lek, Jigsaw Words, Nab-It!, Puzzlage, Typ-Dom, Word Jigsaw, and Yottsugo.[15][citation needed] Puzzle pieces A "whimsy" piece in a wooden jigsaw puzzle A 3D jigsaw puzzle Many puzzles are termed "fully interlocking", which means that adjacent pieces are connected so that they stay attached when one is turned. Sometimes the connection is tight enough to pick up a solved part by holding one piece. Some fully interlocking puzzles have pieces of a similar shape, with rounded tabs (interjambs) on opposite ends and corresponding indentations—called blanks—on the other two sides to receive the tabs. Other fully interlocking puzzles may have tabs and blanks variously arranged on each piece; but they usually have four sides, and the numbers of tabs and blanks thus add up to four. Uniformly shaped fully interlocking puzzles, sometimes called "Japanese Style", are the most difficult because the differences in the pieces' shapes are most subtle.[citation needed] Most jigsaw puzzles are square, rectangular or round, with edge pieces with one straight or smoothly curved side, plus four corner pieces (if the puzzle is square or rectangular). However, some puzzles have edge, and corner pieces cut like the rest, with no straight sides, making it more challenging to identify them. Other puzzles utilize more complex edge pieces to form unique shapes when assembled, such as profiles of animals. The pieces of spherical jigsaw, like immersive panorama jigsaw, can be triangular-shaped, according to the rules of tessellation of the geoid primitive. Designer Yuu Asaka created "Jigsaw Puzzle 29". Instead of four corner pieces, it has five. The puzzle is made from pale blue acrylic without a picture.[16] It was awarded the Jury Honorable Mention of 2018 Puzzle Design Competition.[17] Because many puzzlers had solved it easily, he created "Jigsaw Puzzle 19" which composed only with corner pieces as revenge.[18] It was made with transparent green acrylic pieces without a picture.[19] Calculating the number of edge pieces Jigsaw puzzlers often want to know in advance how many border pieces they are looking for to verify they have found all of them. Puzzle sizes are typically listed on commercially distributed puzzles but usually include the total number of pieces in the puzzle and do not list the count of edge or interior pieces. Puzzlers, therefore, calculate the number of border pieces. To calculate B (border pieces) from P (the total piece count), follow this method:     List the prime factors of P.         For a 513-piece jigsaw, the prime factorization tree is 3×3×3×19=513     Take the square root of P and round off.         √513 ≈ 22.6         round to 23     Look for numbers in the prime factor list within ±20% of the square root of P.         Calculate 20% of the rounded square root of P.             1⁄5 × 23 = 4.6         Develop the range, ±20%, from the rounded square root of P.             23 ±4.6 = 18.4 to 27.6         Compare the range with the factor list. Define this as E1.             The factor list shows 19 in the range.     Determine the horizontal / vertical dimensions.         Divide P (the total number of pieces) by E1 to determine the horizontal / vertical dimensions, E1xE2.             513 / 19 = 27             This is probably a 19×27 puzzle.         Alternative method: take the remaining numbers from the prime factorization tree.             3x3x3 = 27     Add the four sides and subtract 4 to correct for the corner pieces, which would otherwise be counted in both the horizontal and vertical.         (27 × 2)+(19 × 2)-4 = 88 These 88 border pieces include 4 corners, 17 pieces between corners on the short sides, and 25 between corners on the long sides. Common puzzle dimensions:     1000 piece puzzle: 1026 pieces, 126 border pieces (38x27)[20] World records Largest commercially available jigsaw puzzles Pieces     Name of puzzle     Company     Year     Size [cm]     Area [m2] 54,000     Travel by Art     Grafika     2020     864 × 204     17.65 52,110     (No title: collage of animals)     MartinPuzzle     2018     696 × 202     14.06 51,300     27 Wonders from Around the World     Kodak     2019     869 × 191     16.60 48,000     Around the World     Grafika     2017     768 × 204     15.67 42,000     La vuelta al Mundo     Educa Borras     2017     749 × 157     11.76 40,320     Making Mickey Magic     Ravensburger     2018     680 × 192     13.06 40,320     Memorable Disney Moments     Ravensburger     2016     680 × 192     13.06 33,600     Wild Life     Educa Borras     2014     570 × 157     8.95 32,000     New York City Window     Ravensburger     2014     544 × 192     10.45 32,000     Double Retrospect     Ravensburger     2010     544 × 192     10.45 24,000     Life, The greatest puzzle     Educa Borras     2007     428 × 157     6.72 Largest-sized jigsaw puzzles The world's largest-sized jigsaw puzzle measured 5,428.8 m2 (58,435 sq ft) with 21,600 pieces, each measuring a Guinness World Records maximum size of 50 cm by 50 cm. It was assembled on 3 November 2002 by 777 people at the former Kai Tak Airport in Hong Kong.[21] Largest jigsaw puzzle – most pieces The Guinness record of CYM Group in 2011 with 551,232 pieces The jigsaw with the greatest number of pieces had 551,232 pieces and measured 14.85 × 23.20 m (48 ft 8.64 in × 76 ft 1.38 in). It was assembled on 25 September 2011 at Phú Thọ Indoor Stadium in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, by students of the University of Economics, Ho Chi Minh City. It is listed by the Guinness World Records for the "Largest Jigsaw Puzzle – most pieces", but as the intact jigsaw had been divided into 3,132 sections, each containing 176 pieces, which were reassembled and then connected, the claim is controversial.[22][23] Society The logo of Wikipedia is a globe made out of jigsaw pieces. The incomplete sphere symbolizes the room to add new knowledge.[citation needed] In the logo of the Colombian Office of the Attorney General appears a jigsaw puzzle piece in the foreground. They named it "The Key Piece": "The piece of a puzzle is the proper symbol to visually represent the Office of the Attorney General because it includes the concepts of search, solution and answers that the entity pursues through the investigative activity."[24] Art and entertainment The central antagonist in the Saw film franchise is named Jigsaw.[25] In the 1933 Laurel and Hardy short Me and My Pal, several characters attempt to complete a large jigsaw puzzle.[26] Lost in Translation is a poem about a child putting together a jigsaw puzzle, as well as an interpretive puzzle itself. Life: A User's Manual, Georges Perec's most famous novel, tells as pieces of a puzzle a story about a jigsaw puzzle maker. Jigsaw Puzzle (song), sometimes spelled "Jig-Saw Puzzle" is a song by the rock and roll band The Rolling Stones, featured on their 1968 album Beggars Banquet. In ‘‘Citizen Kane‘’ Susan Alexander Kane (Dorothy Comingore) is reduced to spending her days completing jigsaws after the failure of her operatic career. After Kane’s death when ‘’Xanadu’’ is emptied, hundreds of jigsaw puzzles are discovered in the cellar. Rhett And Link Do A Rainy Day Jigsaw Puzzle is a short video by self-described “internetainers” (portmanteau of “Internet” and “entertainers”) Rhett & Link which portrays the frustration of discovering a puzzle piece is missing. Mental health According to the Alzheimer Society of Canada, doing jigsaw puzzles is one of many activities that can help keep the brain active and may reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease.[27] An "autism awareness" ribbon, featuring red, blue, and yellow jigsaw pieces Jigsaw puzzle pieces were first used as a symbol for autism in 1963 by the United Kingdom's National Autistic Society.[28] The organization chose jigsaw pieces for their logo to represent the "puzzling" nature of autism and the inability to "fit in" due to social differences, and also because jigsaw pieces were recognizable and otherwise unused.[29] Puzzle pieces have since been incorporated into the logos and promotional materials of many organizations, including the Autism Society of America and Autism Speaks. Proponents of the autism rights movement oppose the jigsaw puzzle iconography, stating that metaphors such as "puzzling" and "incomplete" are harmful to autistic people. Critics of the puzzle piece symbol instead advocate for a rainbow-colored infinity symbol representing diversity.[30] In 2017, the journal Autism concluded that the use of the jigsaw puzzle evoked negative public perception towards autistic individuals. They removed the puzzle piece from their cover in February 2018." (wikipedia.org) "A puzzle is a game, problem, or toy that tests a person's ingenuity or knowledge. In a puzzle, the solver is expected to put pieces together in a logical way, in order to arrive at the correct or fun solution of the puzzle. There are different genres of puzzles, such as crossword puzzles, word-search puzzles, number puzzles, relational puzzles, and logic puzzles. The academic study of puzzles is called enigmatology. Puzzles are often created to be a form of entertainment but they can also arise from serious mathematical or logical problems. In such cases, their solution may be a significant contribution to mathematical research.... Etymology The Oxford English Dictionary dates the word puzzle (as a verb) to the end of the 16th century. Its earliest use documented in the OED was in a book titled The Voyage of Robert Dudley...to the West Indies, 1594–95, narrated by Capt. Wyatt, by himself, and by Abram Kendall, master (published circa 1595). The word later came to be used as a noun, first as an abstract noun meaning 'the state or condition of being puzzled', and later developing the meaning of 'a perplexing problem'. The OED's earliest clear citation in the sense of 'a toy that tests the player's ingenuity' is from Sir Walter Scott's 1814 novel Waverley, referring to a toy known as a "reel in a bottle".[2] The etymology of the verb puzzle is described by OED as "unknown"; unproven hypotheses regarding its origin include an Old English verb puslian meaning 'pick out', and a derivation of the verb pose.[3] Genres Various puzzles Simple puzzle made of three pieces Puzzles can be categorized as:     Lateral thinking puzzles, also called "situation puzzles"     Mathematical puzzles include the missing square puzzle and many impossible puzzles — puzzles which have no solution, such as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg, the three cups problem, and three utilities problem         Sangaku (Japanese temple tablets with geometry puzzles)     Mechanical puzzles or dexterity puzzles such as the Rubik's Cube and Soma cube can be stimulating toys for children or recreational activities for adults.         A chess problem is a puzzle that uses chess pieces on a chess board. Examples are the knight's tour and the eight queens puzzle.         combination puzzles like Peg solitaire         construction puzzles such as stick puzzles         disentanglement puzzles,         folding puzzles         jigsaw puzzles. Puzz 3D is a three-dimensional variant of this type.         lock puzzles         A puzzle box can be used to hide something — jewelry, for instance.         sliding puzzles (also called sliding tile puzzles) such as the 15 Puzzle and Sokoban         tiling puzzles like Tangram         Tower of Hanoi     Metapuzzles are puzzles which unite elements of other puzzles.     Paper-and-pencil puzzles such as Uncle Art's Funland, connect the dots, and nonograms         Also the logic puzzles published by Nikoli: Sudoku, Slitherlink, Kakuro, Fillomino, Hashiwokakero, Heyawake, Hitori, Light Up, Masyu, Number Link, Nurikabe, Ripple Effect, Shikaku, and Kuromasu.     Spot the difference     Tour puzzles like a maze     Word puzzles, including anagrams, ciphers, crossword puzzles, Hangman (game), and word search puzzles. Tabletop and digital word puzzles include Bananagrams, Boggle, Bonza, Dabble, Letterpress (video game), Perquackey, Puzzlage, Quiddler, Ruzzle, Scrabble, Upwords, WordSpot, and Words with Friends. Wheel of Fortune (U.S. game show) is a game show centered on a word puzzle.     Puzzle video games         Tile-matching video game         Puzzle-platformer         Adventure game         Hidden object game         Minesweeper Puzzle solving     This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (November 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Solutions of puzzles often require the recognition of patterns and the adherence to a particular kind of ordering. People with a high level of inductive reasoning aptitude may be better at solving such puzzles than others. But puzzles based upon inquiry and discovery may be solved more easily by those with good deduction skills. Deductive reasoning improves with practice. Mathematical puzzles often involve BODMAS. BODMAS is an acronym and it stands for Bracket, Of, Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction. In certain regions, PEMDAS (Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction) is the synonym of BODMAS. It explains the order of operations to solve an expression. Some mathematical puzzles require Top to Bottom convention to avoid the ambiguity in the order of operations. It is an elegantly simple idea that relies, as sudoku does, on the requirement that numbers appear only once starting from top to bottom as coming along.[citation needed] Puzzle makers Puzzle makers are people who make puzzles. In general terms of occupation, a puzzler is someone who composes and/or solves puzzles. Some notable creators of puzzles are:     Ernő Rubik     Sam Loyd     Henry Dudeney     Boris Kordemsky     David J. Bodycombe     Will Shortz     Oskar van Deventer     Lloyd King     Martin Gardner     Raymond Smullyan History of jigsaw and other puzzles Main article: Jigsaw puzzle Jigsaw puzzles are perhaps the most popular form of puzzle. Jigsaw puzzles were invented around 1760, when John Spilsbury, a British engraver and cartographer, mounted a map on a sheet of wood, which he then sawed around the outline of each individual country on the map. He then used the resulting pieces as an aid for the teaching of geography. John Spilsbury, an engraver and mapmaker, was also credited with inventing the first jigsaw puzzle in 1767.[4] After becoming popular among the public, this kind of teaching aid remained the primary use of jigsaw puzzles until about 1820.[5] The largest puzzle (40,320 pieces) is made by German game company Ravensburger.[6] The smallest puzzle ever made was created at LaserZentrum Hannover. It is only five square millimeters, the size of a sand grain. The puzzles that were first documented are riddles. In Europe, Greek mythology produced riddles like the riddle of the Sphinx. Many riddles were produced during the Middle Ages, as well.[7] By the early 20th century, magazines and newspapers found that they could increase their readership by publishing puzzle contests, beginning with crosswords and in modern days sudoku. Organizations and events There are organizations and events that cater to puzzle enthusiasts, such as:     Nob Yoshigahara Puzzle Design Competition     World Puzzle Championship     National Puzzlers' League     Puzzlehunts such as the Maze of Games     World Cube Association" (wikipedia.org) "Hallmark Cards, Inc. is a private, family-owned American company based in Kansas City, Missouri. Founded in 1910 by Joyce Hall, Hallmark is the oldest and largest manufacturer of greeting cards in the United States.[3] In 1985, the company was awarded the National Medal of Arts.[4] In addition to greeting cards, Hallmark also manufactures such products as party goods, gift wrap, and stationery. Hallmark acquired Binney & Smith in 1987, and would later change its name to Crayola, LLC after its well-known Crayola brand of crayons, markers and colored pencils. The company is also involved in television, having produced the long-running Hallmark Hall of Fame series since 1951, and launching the Hallmark Channel 50 years later (replacing an earlier joint venture with The Jim Henson Company, Odyssey Network). ... History Hallmark corporate headquarters entrance. Hallmark corporate offices. A Hallmark Store in Toronto Eaton Centre. Driven by an early 20th-century postcard craze, Joyce Clyde Hall and his older brothers, William and Rollie, began the Norfolk Post Card Company in 1907, initially headquartered in the Norfolk, Nebraska bookstore at which they worked. The next year, Rollie bought out the store's non-family business partner and it became "Hall Brothers", doing business as the Hall Book Store. The postcard business soon outgrew the store's resources, and Joyce moved it to Kansas City in 1910. By 1912, the postcard craze had faded and the company had begun selling "Christmas letters" and greeting cards, shortening its name a few years later to the Norfolk Card Company.[5] In 1917, Hall and his brother Rollie "invented" modern wrapping paper when they ran out of traditional colored tissue paper at the stationery store and substituted fancy French envelope lining paper. After selling the lining paper again the next year, the Hall Brothers started printing their own specifically designed wrapping paper.[6] In 1922, the company expanded throughout the country.[7] The staff grew from 4 to 120 people, and the line increased from holiday cards to include everyday greeting cards. In 1928, the company introduced the brand name Hallmark, after the hallmark symbol used by goldsmiths in London in the 14th century, and began printing the name on the back of every card. That same year, the company became the first in the greeting card industry to advertise their product nationally. Their first advertisement appeared in Ladies' Home Journal and was written by J.C. Hall himself.[7] In 1931, the Canadian William E. Coutts Company, Ltd., a major card maker, became an affiliate of Hall Brothers – their first international business venture. In 1944, it adopted its current slogan, "When you care enough to send the very best." It was created by C. E. Goodman, a Hallmark marketing and sales executive, and written on a 3x5 card.[8] The card is on display at the company headquarters. In 1951, Hall sponsored a television program for NBC that gave rise to the Hallmark Hall of Fame, which has won 80 Emmy Awards.[9] Hallmark now has its own cable television channel, the Hallmark Channel which was established in 2001. For a period of about 15 years, Hallmark owned a stake in the Spanish language network Univision. In 1954, the company name was changed from Hall Brothers to Hallmark.[10] In 1958, William E. Coutts Company, Ltd. was acquired by Hallmark. Until the 1990s, Hallmark's Canadian branch was known as Coutts Hallmark. In 1973, Hallmark Cards started manufacturing Christmas ornaments. The first collection included 18 ornaments, including six glass ball ornaments.[11] The Hallmark Keepsake Ornament collection is dated and available for just one year. By 1998, 11 million American households collected Hallmark ornaments, and 250,000 people were members of the Keepsake Ornament Collector's Club.[12] The Collector's Club was launched nationally on June 1, 1987.[13] One noted Christmas ornament authority was Clara Johnson Scroggins who wrote extensively about Keepsake Ornaments and had one of the largest private collections of Christmas ornaments.[14] In 1980, Hallmark Cards acquired Valentine & Sons of Dundee, Scotland, one of the world's oldest publishers of picture postcards.[15] In 1998, Hallmark made a number of acquisitions, including Britain-based Creative Publishing (a recent spinoff of Fine Art Developments), and U.S.-based InterArt.[16][17] As of 2014, The Paper Store LLC is one of the largest independently owned groups of Hallmark Gold Crown stores in the United States. This partnership began in the year 1972.[18] Employees Worldwide, Hallmark has over 27,000 employees; 20,000 of them work in the United States, about 5,600 of whom are full-time employees. About 2,700 Hallmarkers work at the Kansas City headquarters.[1] Management On June 26, 2019, it was announced that Mike Perry would serve as president and CEO, while Donald J. Hall Jr. serves as executive chairman and David E. Hall as executive vice-chairman.[19][20] Creative resources Hallmark's creative staff consists of around 900 artists, designers, stylists, writers, editors, and photographers. Together, they generate more than 19,000 new and redesigned greeting cards and related products per year. The company offers more than 48,000 products in its model line at any one time. Products and services Hallmark offers or has offered the following products and services: Greeting cards Hallmark birthday cards Hallmark Cards feature several brands and licenses. Shoebox, the company's line of humorous cards, evolved from studio cards. Maxine (by John Wagner), was introduced in 1986 when she appeared on several Shoebox cards the year the alternative card line was launched. hoops&yoyo, were characters created by Bob Holt and Mike Adair. Revilo is another popular line, by artist Oliver Christianson ("Revilo" is "Oliver" spelled backwards). Forever Friends was purchased in 1994 from English entrepreneur Andrew Brownsword, who for four years subsequently was Chief Executive of Hallmark Europe. Image Craft was acquired by the William E. Coutts Company subsidiary of Hallmark Canada in the mid-2000s. Hallmark has provided software for creating and printing cards. This software has been known as Hallmark Card Studio, with partner Nova Development, and Microsoft Greetings Workshop in partner with Microsoft.[21] Gift products     This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (April 2012)     Gifts, greeting cards     Hallmark flowers     Keepsake ornaments and other Christmas ornaments     Road Rovers: diecast cartoon vehicles[22]     Books     Stationery     Sentimental frames     Recordable plush     Itty-Bittys     Happy-Go-Luckys     Bookmarks     Snowglobes Licensors     This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (February 2011) Some of the licensors for Hallmark's greeting cards, ornaments, and gift products include:     Beatrix Potter     Dr. Seuss     Filstar Distributors Corp. (Philippines)[23]     Ford Motor Company     General Motors     Hasbro     Harley-Davidson     Marjolein Bastin     Mattel     MGM     National Basketball Association     National Football League     National Hockey League     Nickelodeon         Paws, Inc.     Nintendo     Peyo     Precious Moments, Inc.     Rankin Bass     Sanrio     Sony Pictures     Star Trek     Tervis Tumbler     The Hershey Company     The Walt Disney Company         20th Century Studios             Family Guy             Ice Age film series             The Simpsons         Lucasfilm including Star Wars         Marvel Comics     Thomas Kinkade     Tim Burton     Ty Inc     Universal Studios         DreamWorks Animation     Warner Bros.         Looney Tunes         DC Comics         Hanna Barbera         Cartoon Network     WildBrain         Peanuts Hallmark Visitors Center The Hallmark Visitors Center is located at the company's headquarters in Kansas City, Missouri. The Center features exhibits about the company's history including historic greeting cards and postcards, Christmas ornaments, exhibits from the company's art collection, and displays about the Hallmark Hall of Fame programs and awards.[24] There is also a movie about the company's history. Hallmark School Store Alvirne High School in Hudson, New Hampshire, operates the only Hallmark school store in the United States. Besides normal food and beverage items, the "Bronco Barn" store also sells Hallmark cards. The store is run by students in Marketing I and Marketing II classes, and is open to students all day and after school.[25] Subsidiaries and assets A Hallmark Gold Crown franchise in Evansville, Indiana. A Crayola pack of 64 crayons. Hallmark owns:     Crayola LLC (formerly Binney & Smith): makers of Crayola-brand crayons     DaySpring Greeting Cards, is the world's largest Christian greeting card company. It was purchased in 1999 from Cook Publishing and is based in Siloam Springs, Arkansas.     Hallmark Business Connections: Formed in 1996, Hallmark Business Connections is a business-to-business subsidiary of Hallmark Cards, Inc. and is headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri.[26]     Hallmark Channel: cable television network—Hallmark Cards owns this now privately held company (Crown Media Holdings), having acquired the stake it didn't own from Liberty Media; the network launched the Hallmark Movies & Mysteries sister channel (formerly known as Hallmark Movie Channel) in January 2004     Hallmark Gold Crown: a chain of independently-owned card and gift stores in the United States and Canada. Certain locations are corporate operated.     Hallmark Business Connections: Incentives—Reward programs, recognition programs and online gift certificates;     Halls, an upscale department store at Kansas City's Crown Center     Hallmark Movies Now: A premium subscription video on-demand (SVOD) service that is the primary streaming provider of Hallmark films, features, TV series and original productions.     Rainbow Brite: a franchise of children's dolls; includes the TV series produced by DIC Entertainment, but not the movie, which is owned by Warner Bros.)     Shirt Tales: a franchise of cards, featuring animals with shirts that read different messages; does not include the TV series created by Hanna-Barbera Productions (owned by Turner Entertainment)     Sunrise Greetings: Located in Bloomington, Indiana     Zoobilee Zoo: a 1986 TV show, centered around a zoo populated by animals with artistic tastes     Hallmark Baby: Baby clothing, toy, and decor sales website that sells exclusive Hallmark products. In addition, Hallmark Cards is the property manager of the Crown Center commercial complex, adjacent to its headquarters, and the owner of lithographer Litho-Krome Co. Photographic Collection In 2006, Hallmark donated its Hallmark Photographic Collection, an extensive collection of photographs by prominent photographers including Todd Webb, to the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City.[27] Hallmark Music In the Philippines, singer Richard Tan sang a song about Hallmark Cards, entitled "No One Throws Away Memories". The song was featured in a commercial of the product in the 1970s.[28] In the mid-1980s, the company started its music division, issuing compilation albums by a number of popular artists.[citation needed] In 2004, Hallmark entered into a licensing agreement with Somerset Entertainment to produce Hallmark Music CDs.[29] Former subsidiaries     Hallmark Entertainment: a producer of television shows and mini-series. Robert Halmi acquired the company in 2006 and it was absorbed into RHI Entertainment;     Univision: Hallmark owned the Spanish-language broadcaster from 1986 to 1992.[30] Copyright lawsuits Neil Armstrong sued Hallmark Cards in 1994 after they used his name and a recording of his quote, "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind" in a Christmas ornament without permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount of money which Armstrong donated to Purdue University. The case caused Armstrong and NASA to be more careful about the use of astronaut names, photographs and recordings, and to whom he had granted permission. For non-profit and government public-service announcements, he would usually give permission.[31] On September 6, 2007, Paris Hilton filed an injunction lawsuit against Hallmark Cards Inc., titled Hilton v. Hallmark Cards, in U.S. District Court over the unlawful use of her picture and catchphrase "That's hot" on a greeting card. The card is titled "Paris's First Day as a Waitress" with a photograph of Hilton's face on a cartoon of a waitress serving a plate of food, with a Hilton's dialogue bubble, "Don't touch that, it's hot." (which had a registered trademark on February 13, 2007). Hilton's attorney Brent Blakely said that the infringement damages would be based on profits from the $2.49 greeting cards.[32] A Hallmark spokesperson said that the card was intended as parody, protected under fair use law.[33][34] The Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reviewed the case and "denied Hallmark's motion to dismiss". Hilton and Hallmark Cards Inc. later settled out of court." (wikipedia.org) "The caiques (/kaɪˈiːk/ or /kɑːˈiːk/[2]) are species of parrots in the genus Pionites. They are relatively small and stocky, with a short, square tail and very bright colors. Their typical weight is 150–170 grams. They can live up to 40 years. They are endemic to the Amazon Basin in South America, with the black-headed north of the Amazon River, and the white-bellied south. They are listed on Appendix 2 of CITES as a species of least concern. They generally prefer forested areas and subsist on fruit and seeds. Caiques are generally canopy dwellers, spending most of their time in the tops of trees, foraging and playing. Caique wing feathers produce a distinctive whirring sound in flight. They are highly vocal. The term "caique" is primarily used in aviculture, with ornithologists preferring "parrot" to describe these species.... Taxonomy and systematics Originally Pionites were classified as two species, the black-headed parrot and white-bellied parrot. However, recent morphological work has indicated that the white-bellied parrot should be split into three species based on plumage and leg coloration.[1] In the past these parrots were often allied with the conures or other South American parakeets. Recent mitochondrial and nuclear DNA work has found Pionites to be the sister taxon to the Deroptyus (the genus that contains the red-fan parrot); the two genera occupy a basal position in the tribe Arini.[3] Pionites Common name (Binomial name) Status     Image     Description     Region and habitat Green-thighed parrot (Pionites leucogaster) Endangered[4]     Pionites leucogaster -Parque de las Aves -Foz de Iguazu-6a-4c.jpg     About 23 cm (9.1 in) long. Mostly green and pink feet; apricot-orange cap; a medium, stout parrot.     Amazon region of Brazil Lives in lowland humid tropical and seasonally flooded forest.[5] Yellow-tailed parrot (Pionites xanthurus) Vulnerable[6]     Pionites leucogaster - White-bellied Parrot; Rio Branco, Acre, Brazil.jpg     About 23 cm (9.1 in) long. Similar to the black-legged parrot, but yellow tail and pink feet.     Amazon region of southern Brazil Lives in lowland humid tropical and seasonally flooded forest.[7] Black-legged parrot (Pionites xanthomerius) Least concern[8]     Pionites leucogaster - pet perching near books.jpg     About 23 cm (9.1 in) long. Similar to the green-thighed parrot, but yellow-thighs and blackish feet.     Parts of Bolivia, Peru and Brazil Prefers seasonally flooded forest.[9] Black-headed parrot (Pionites melanocephalus) Least concern[10]     Black-headed Caique adult pets in cage.JPG     About 23 cm (9.1 in) long. Mostly green, with yellow thighs with hints of orange; blackish feet; black cap with a black bill; a medium, chunky parrot.[11]     Parts of Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Peru, and Brazil Lives in lowland humid tropical and seasonally flooded forest.[12] Natural history Behavior and ecology These parrots are found in the edges of forests and secondary-growth forests.[13] They usually forage on at higher levels in the canopy, although can also be found lower at forest edges. At least two members of the flock act as sentries during feeding time. Their diet consists of flowers, fruit, pulp, and seeds, although in captivity they are known to eat insects. Depending on the species and the location, they can breed from October to May at various times of the year. Caiques are high-nesting cavity birds and roost communally. They defend themselves in something like packs, together [reference or personal observation note needed or discuss in talks section]. This may help to explain their relative self-confidence, compared to other parrots. Caiques are also known to form ad-hoc defensive committees in response to predators. The number of the flock is usually around 10 to 30 individuals.[14] The species of the white-bellied parrot complex is found in humid forest and wooded habitats in the Amazon south of the Amazon River in Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru. It is generally fairly common throughout its range and is easily seen in a wide range of protected areas, such as the Manú National Park and Tambopata-Candamo in Peru, Cristalino State Park (near Alta Floresta), Xingu National Park and Amazônia National Park in Brazil, and Madidi National Park in Bolivia. The black-headed parrot is found in forest (especially, but not exclusively, humid) and nearby wooded habitats in the Amazon north of the Amazon River and west of the Ucayali River in Brazil, northern Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. It is generally fairly common and occurs in many protected areas throughout its range. Aviculture Juvenile white-bellied caique on back playing Caiques are growing in popularity in aviculture. The more commonly found species is the black-headed caique since it was introduced first in captivity, but the white-bellied caique's popularity is growing rapidly. Well-raised caiques bond well with humans and have a reputation as playful and energetic birds that enjoy playing with toys and lying on their backs. These birds sometimes perform a behavior unusual for avian species in which they roll over on their backs in apparent play-fighting with other caiques—sometimes called "wrestling".[15][16][17] They are not particularly good flyers, becoming tired and winded after only a short distance. They also tend to be clumsy and slow in the air compared to other birds. They often prefer to walk, jump, climb, ride other animals' backs, or hop as a mode of transportation. They are excellent climbers, with very strong feet and legs. Caiques also exhibit a unique behavior known as "surfing", where the bird will vigorously rub its face, wings and chest against any nearby soft item (e.g. carpets, towels, cushions, crumpled paper, curtains or human hair) while using its beak to pull itself along. The bird will display jerky movements and may roll over several times. This behavior is thought to be a cleaning or bathing motion and occurs regardless of age or sex. In the wild, caiques use wet leaves for this behavior.[18] In captivity caiques are capable of breeding at under three years of age.[19] They typically lay a clutch of four eggs, with incubation taking between 24 and 27 days. Most pairs will struggle to raise all four chicks; often the last chick to hatch will not survive unless it is taken for hand-rearing or co-parenting. Chicks are fed by both parents and remain in the nest box for approximately 70–75 days. Parents can be very affectionate towards their offspring and after the chicks have fledged they will return to the nest box each night with their parents where the family will roost as a group. " (wikipedia.org) "The Catalina macaw, sometimes known as the rainbow macaw[1] is a first generation hybrid between the blue-and-gold macaw and scarlet macaw. As catalina macaws are hybrids, they do not have a true scientific name. The best way to represent these birds in taxonomy is by the expression Ara ararauna × Ara macao.... Origin Scarlet macaw (right) and blue-and-gold macaw (left), parents to the Catalina macaw The Catalina macaw is named after Catalina Bird Park, formerly located on Santa Catalina Island, California, at which this hybrid was first produced in captivity, in 1940.[3] It is a first-generation hybrid between the blue-and-yellow macaw and scarlet macaw. As Catalina macaws are hybrids, they do not have a proper scientific name. The best way to represent these birds in taxonomy is by the expression Ara ararauna × Ara macao.[4] There is speculation that the first hybrid macaw was the Catalina macaw.[5] Hybridization of macaws can occur naturally or in captivity. However, most Catalina macaws are the result of selective breeding. Therefore, they rarely occur in the wild on their own. Breeders have selected the blue-and-gold macaw for its friendly nature, whereas the scarlet macaw is known for its striking beauty. This combination has created the much sought-after Catalina macaw, with its bright coloration and charming personality. In bird breeding, the father's genes are often dominant. Therefore, the male is usually the scarlet macaw, whereas the female is the blue-and-gold macaw.[6] It is also possible to produce a second-generation hybrid by breeding two Catalina macaws together.[1] Description Catalina macaws generally weigh 2–3 pounds and can reach up to 35 inches (86–89 cm) in length from the beak to the tip of the tail feathers. Their wingspan reaches 40-45 inches (101–114 cm). The average Catalina lives up to 60 years in captivity. The chest, abdomen, and back are usually orange or yellowish with greens and blues on the wings, with the coloration most strongly influenced by the father's genes.[6] They have a white chin with black patches around it, and their beak is usually gray. They are physically similar to Harlequin macaws but have a long tapering tail. Their bright coloration is due to pigments and structural colors in the feathers. Psittacofulvins are the pigment responsible for the bright red, orange, and yellow colors.[7] Therefore, the coloration of the feathers can be an indicator of their overall health.[8] However, blues and greens are not produced by any pigment. Instead, the color blue observed on the Catalina (as well as all birds) is a structural color, whereas the green coloration found in Catalinas is produced by a combination of blue structural colors and yellow pigments. [7] Behavior Vocalizations Like most macaws, the Catalina macaw can learn words and phrases over its lifetime. Although less impressive talkers than some other parrots, this bird can say up to 15 words or expressions. They are also highly vocal birds and will get loud and scream if they are excited, bored, or trying to communicate.[9] The Catalina macaw is loud because it is very social and likes to interact with other people and other birds. Their screams have been registered to reach 100–106 decibels,[10] comparable to a live rock concert or a jackhammer. [11] Macaws live in flocks in the wild. In the absence of a flock, the Catalina macaw recognizes its caregivers as the flock. It will try to communicate with its caregiver like it would communicate with its flock in the wild. Therefore, captive macaws will often use "contact calls" if left alone. Wild macaws do this to reconnect with the rest of the flock if they are lost or alone. These yells progressively become louder in captive Catalina macaw with long periods of separation. [10] Therefore, Catalina macaws are not recommended for people who live in apartment buildings or are frequently away. Diet The Catalina macaw has the same diet as most macaws. Since macaws are active birds, they need lots of food rich in oils and calories to meet their needs. A balanced diet includes a variety of seeds, plants, fruits, and nuts. Furthermore, it is possible to purchase good parrot mix from pet stores. However, these mixes are best used if also complemented with fresh fruits and vegetables.[9] Fruits that are good to feed include apples, pears, plums, cherries, grapes, bananas, mangoes, papayas, and berries. Vegetables that are good to feed include carrots, sweet potatoes, cucumbers, zucchini, and leafy greens. [1] Catalina macaw Reproduction The first reports of macaw hybrids date back to the early 20th century. Today, it is common practice for hybrid macaws to be bred in captivity. All macaws are sexually monomorphic, making it difficult to distinguish a male from a female without genetic testing. Therefore, breeders must first ensure they pair a female blue-and-gold macaw with a male scarlet macaw to produce the Catalina macaw. Furthermore, these macaws need to develop a bond with each other before mating. The bonded pair receives a nest box in which they will lay 2–3 eggs. The incubation period lasts around 28 days. The ideal breeding ages for macaws range from 4–8 years old, but the largest macaws have been known to reproduce at 30–35 years old.[9] The Catalina is considered a first-generation hybrid. However, since the Catalina macaw has many desirable traits, bird breeders have crossed it with other macaws to create additional macaw hybrids. These second-generation hybrids[1] include:     Catablu macaw (Catalina macaw × blue and gold macaw)     Camelina macaw (Catalina macaw × Camelot macaw)     Camelot macaw (Catalina macaw × scarlet macaw)     Flame macaw (Catalina macaw × green-wing macaw)     Hyalina macaw (Catalina macaw × hyacinth macaw)     Maui sunrise macaw (Catalina macaw × harlequin macaw)     Milicat macaw (Catalina macaw × miligold macaw)     Militalina macaw (Catalina macaw × military macaw)     Rubalina macaw (Catalina macaw × ruby macaw)     Shamalina macaw (Catalina macaw × shamrock macaw)" (wikipedia.org) "The citron-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea citrinocristata) is a medium-sized cockatoo with an orange crest, dark grey beak, pale orange ear patches, and strong feet and claws. The underside of the larger wing and tail feathers have a pale yellow color. The eyelid color is a very light blue. Both sexes are similar. Females have a coppered colored eye where as the male has a very dark black eye. The smallest of the yellow-crested cockatoo subspecies, it is endemic to Sumba in the Lesser Sunda Islands in Indonesia. The diet consists mainly of seeds, buds, fruits, nuts and herbaceous plants. I'm 2022, Birdlife International recognized the citron-crested cockatoo as a separate species, Cacatua citrinocristata." (wikipedia.org) "The hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), or hyacinthine macaw, is a parrot native to central and eastern South America. With a length (from the top of its head to the tip of its long pointed tail) of about one meter it is longer than any other species of parrot. It is the largest macaw and the largest flying parrot species; the flightless kākāpō of New Zealand outweighs it at up to 3.5 kg. While generally easily recognized, it could be confused with the smaller Lear's macaw. Habitat loss and the trapping of wild birds for the pet trade have taken a heavy toll on their population in the wild, so the species is classified as Vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List,[1] and it is protected by its listing on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).... Taxonomy English physician, ornithologist, and artist John Latham first described the hyacinth macaw in 1790 under the binomial name Psittacus hyacinthinus.[3] Tony Pittman in 2000 hypothesized that although the illustration in this work appears to be of an actual hyacinthine macaw, Latham's description of the length of the bird might mean he had measured a specimen of Lear's macaw instead.[4] However, Latham's description was based on a taxidermic specimen, which was the only one Latham knew to exist up until 1822. It was prepared from a living animal originally belonging to Lord Orford, and given to the land agent Parkinson for display in the Leverian Museum after it died.[5][6] Nonetheless, Latham mentions another bird, which he calls the 'blue maccaw', supposedly the same size.[5][6] This blue macaw was already described in Latham's 1781 volume of his A general synopsis of birds as merely a variety of the blue and yellow macaw,[7] and was previously figured in the work of Mathurin Jacques Brisson (1760),[8] Patrick Browne (1756)[9] and Eleazar Albin (1738)[10] as a macaw found in Jamaica.[7] Albin, Browne and Brisson all reference even older authors and state the bird also occurs on the mainland,[8][9][10] and Albin states this bird is the female version of the scarlet macaw.[10] Latham mentions that the provenance of parrots in general was often confused by the fact that the birds were much traded across the world for the purposes of sale.[7] It is one of two extant and one probably extinct species of the South American macaw genus Anodorhynchus. Description The largest parrot by length in the world, the hyacinth macaw is 1 m (3 ft 3 in) long from the tip of its tail to the top of its head and weighs 1.2–1.7 kg (2 lb 10 oz – 3 lb 12 oz).[11][12] Each wing is 38.8–42.5 cm (15+1⁄4–16+3⁄4 in) long.[11] The tail is long and pointed.[11] Its feathers are entirely blue, lighter above. However, the neck feathers can sometimes be slightly grey. The ring around the parrots eyes and area just underneath the beak are a strong, vibrant yellow.     Close-up of head     A skeleton exhibited at Dvůr Králové Zoo in Dvůr Králové nad Labem, Czech Republic     Hyacinth macaws in their natural habitat, the Pantanal, Brazil     in flight in the Pantanal     on a postage stamp Ecology A main predator is the toco toucan, which consumes a large percentage of the eggs.[13] Eggs are also regularly preyed on by corvids such as jays and crows,[13][14] opossums,[13] skunks[14] and coatis.[13][14] The young are parasitized by larvae of flies of the genus Philornis.[15] Behaviour Food and feeding A hyacinth macaw eating a nut at Pantanal in Brazil The majority of the hyacinth macaw diet is composed of the nuts from specific palm species, such as acuri and bocaiuva palms.[16] They have very strong beaks for eating the kernels of hard nuts and seeds. Their strong beaks are even able to crack coconuts, the large brazil nut pods, and macadamia nuts. The birds also boast dry, smooth tongues with a bone inside them that makes them an effective tool for tapping into fruits.[17] The acuri nut is so hard, the parrots cannot feed on it until it has passed through the digestive system of cattle.[16] In addition, they eat fruits and other vegetable matter. The hyacinth macaw generally eats fruits, nuts, nectar, and various kinds of seeds. Also, they travel for the ripest of foods over a vast area.[18] In the Pantanal, hyacinth macaws feed almost exclusively on the nuts of Acrocomia aculeata and Attalea phalerata palm trees. This behaviour was recorded by the English naturalist Henry Walter Bates in his 1863 book The Naturalist on the River Amazons, where he wrote that     It flies in pairs, and feeds on the hard nuts of several palms, but especially of the Mucuja (Acrocomia lasiospatha). These nuts, which are so hard as to be difficult to break with a heavy hammer, are crushed to a pulp by the powerful beak of this macaw.     — Bates[19] Charles Darwin remarked on Bates's account of the species, calling it a "splendid bird" with its "enormous beak" able to feed on these palm nuts.[20] In captivity, the palm nuts native to the hyacinth macaw's natural habitat are often not readily available. In these circumstances the macadamia nut (which is native to Australia) is a suitable, nutritious and readily-accepted alternative.[21] Coincidentally, the hyacinth macaw is one of the only birds with the necessary jaw strength to open the nut, which requires 300psi of pressure to crack the shell." (wikipedia.orG) "The red-headed lovebird (Agapornis pullarius) also known as the red-faced lovebird is a member of the genus Agapornis, a group commonly known as lovebirds. Like other lovebirds it is native to Africa.... Taxonomy The red-headed lovebird was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He placed it with all the other parrots in the genus Psittacus and coined the binomial name Psittacus pullarius.[2] The type locality is Ghana.[3] The red-headed lovebird is now one of nine species placed in the genus Agapornis that was introduced in 1836 by the English naturalist Prideaux John Selby.[4][5] The genus name combines the Ancient Greek αγάπη agape meaning "love" and όρνις ornis meaning "bird". The specific epithet pullarius is from Latin and means "of young birds" (pullus means "chick").[6] Two subspecies are recognised:[5]     A. p. pullarius (Linnaeus, 1758) – Guinea and Sierra Leone to Sudan, DR Congo and Angola     A. p. ugandae Neumann, 1908 – west Ethiopia to east DR Congo and northwest Tanzania Description The red-headed lovebird is a 15 cm (6 inches) long, mostly green parrot. It has a well demarcated red area on its head extending from the top of the beak, over the forehead to mid-crown, and extending to the left and right up to the eyelid margins. It has grey feet. The underside of the wings is a lighter green. The female has orange head colouring, which is less well demarcated than the male's red head. The adult male has a red beak while the female's is a paler red.[7] Distribution and habitat It has a patchy distribution across the African tropical rainforest." (wikipedia.org) "A parakeet is any one of many small to medium-sized species of parrot, in multiple genera, that generally has long tail feathers. ... Etymology and naming The name parakeet is derived from the French word perroquet, which is reflected in some older spellings that are still sometimes encountered, including paroquet or paraquet. However, in modern French, perruche is used to refer to parakeets and similar-sized parrots. In American English, the word parakeet usually refers to the budgerigar, which is one species of parakeet. The word lorikeet is formally composed of lory and -keet,[1] the former from Malay lūri, and the latter through either clipping of parakeet, or reanalysis of -keet as a suffix. Compare the usage of grasskeet for grass parakeets. Summary The Australian budgerigar, or shell parakeet, is a popular pet and the most common parakeet Parakeets comprise about 115 species of birds that are seed-eating parrots of small size, slender build, and long, tapering tails.[2] The Australian budgerigar, also known as "budgie", Melopsittacus undulatus, is probably the most common parakeet. It was first described by zoologists in 1891. It is the most popular species of parakeet kept as a pet in North America and Europe. A rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri). The term "grass parakeet" (or grasskeet) refers to many small Australian parakeets native to grasslands such as the genus Neophema and the princess parrot. The Australian rosellas are also parakeets. Many of the smaller, long-tailed species of lories may be referred to as "lorikeets". The vernacular name ring-necked parakeet (not to be confused with the Australian ringneck) refers to a species of the genus Psittacula native to Africa and Asia that is popular as a pet and has become feral in many cities outside its natural range. In aviculture, the term "conure" is used for small to medium-sized parakeets of the genera Aratinga, Pyrrhura, and a few other genera of the tribe Arini, which are mainly endemic to South America. As they are not all from one genus, taxonomists tend to avoid the term. Other South American species commonly called parakeets include the genus Brotogeris parakeets, the monk parakeet, and lineolated parakeets, although lineolateds have short tails. A larger species may be referred to as "parrot" or "parakeet" interchangeably. For example, "Alexandrine parrot" and "Alexandrine parakeet" are two common names for the same species, Psittacula eupatria, which is one of the largest species normally referred to as a parakeet. Many different species of parakeets are bred and sold commercially as pets, the budgerigar being the third most popular pet in the world,[3] after cats and dogs. Budgerigars are great companions for any age and can be easily trained." (wikipedia.org) "Toucans (/ˈtuːkæn/, UK: /-kən/) are members of the Neotropical near passerine bird family Ramphastidae. The Ramphastidae are most closely related to the American barbets. They are brightly marked and have large, often colorful bills. The family includes five genera and over forty different species. Toucans are arboreal and typically lay 2–21 white eggs in their nests. They make their nests in tree hollows and holes excavated by other animals such as woodpeckers—the toucan bill has very limited use as an excavation tool. When the eggs hatch, the young emerge completely naked, without any down. Toucans are resident breeders and do not migrate. Toucans are usually found in pairs or small flocks. They sometimes fence with their bills and wrestle, which scientists hypothesize they do to establish dominance hierarchies. In Africa and Asia, hornbills occupy the toucans' ecological niche, an example of convergent evolution.... Taxonomy and systematics The name of this bird group is derived from the Tupi word tukana, via Portuguese.[2] The family includes toucans, aracaris and toucanets; more distant relatives include various families of barbets and woodpeckers in the suborder Pici. Genera The toucan family has five extant genera as follows:[3] Image     Genus     Living species CRTO Matthew-Gable.JPG     Aulacorhynchus—green toucanets         Wagler's toucanet (Aulacorhynchus wagleri)     Emerald toucanet (Aulacorhynchus prasinus)     Blue-throated toucanet (Aulacorhynchus caeruleogularis)     White-throated toucanet (Aulacorhynchus albivitta)     Black-throated toucanet (Aulacorhynchus atrogularis)     Groove-billed toucanet (Aulacorhynchus sulcatus)     Chestnut-tipped toucanet (Aulacorhynchus derbianus)     Tepui toucanet (Aulacorhynchus whitelianus)     Crimson-rumped toucanet (Aulacorhynchus haematopygus)     Yellow-browed toucanet (Aulacorhynchus huallagae)     Blue-banded toucanet (Aulacorhynchus coeruleicinctis) Collared Aracari (16413441566).jpg     Pteroglossus—araçaris         Green aracari (Pteroglossus viridis)     Lettered aracari (Pteroglossus inscriptus)     Red-necked aracari (Pteroglossus bitorquatus)     Ivory-billed aracari (Pteroglossus azara)     Brown-mandibled aracari (Pteroglossus mariae)     Black-necked aracari (Pteroglossus aracari)     Chestnut-eared aracari (Pteroglossus castanotis)     Many-banded aracari (Pteroglossus pluricinctus)     Collared aracari (Pteroglossus torquatus)     Stripe-billed aracari (Pteroglossus sanguineus)     Pale-mandibled aracari (Pteroglossus erythropygius)     Fiery-billed aracari (Pteroglossus frantzii)     Curl-crested aracari (Pteroglossus beauharnaisii)     Saffron toucanet (Pteroglossus bailloni) Yellow-eared Toucanet.jpg     Selenidera—dichromatic toucanets         Yellow-eared toucanet (Selenidera spectabilis)     Guianan toucanet (Selenidera piperivera)     Golden-collared toucanet (Selenidera reinwardtii)     Tawny-tufted toucanet (Selenidera nattereri)     Gould's toucanet (Selenidera gouldii)     Spot-billed toucanet (Selenidera maculirostris) Plate-billed mountain toucan (Andigena laminirostris).jpg     Andigena—mountain toucans         Grey-breasted mountain toucan (Andigena hypoglauca)     Plate-billed mountain toucan (Andigena laminirostris)     Hooded mountain toucan (Andigena cucullata)     Black-billed mountain toucan (Andigena nigrirostris) Toco toucan (Ramphastos toco) adult.JPG     Ramphastos—typical toucans         Green-billed toucan (Ramphastos dicolorus)     Channel-billed toucan (Ramphastos vitellinus)     Citron-throated toucan (Ramphastos citreolaemus)     Choco toucan (Ramphastos brevis)     Keel-billed toucan (Ramphastos sulfuratus)     Toco toucan (Ramphastos toco)     White-throated toucan (Ramphastos tucanus)     Yellow-throated toucan (Ramphastos ambiguus) Description The lettered aracari is the smallest species of toucan. Toucans range in size from the lettered aracari (Pteroglossus inscriptus), at 130 g (4.6 oz) and 29 cm (11 in), to the toco toucan (Ramphastos toco), at 680 g (1.50 lb) and 63 cm (25 in). Their bodies are short (of comparable size to a crow's) and compact. The tail is rounded and varies in length, from half the length to the whole length of the body. The neck is short and thick. The wings are small, as they are forest-dwelling birds who only need to travel short distances, and are often of about the same span as the bill-tip-to-tail-tip measurements of the bird. The toco toucan is the largest species of toucan. The legs of the toucan are strong and rather short. Their toes are arranged in pairs with the first and fourth toes turned backward. The majority of toucans do not show any sexual dimorphism in their coloration, the genus Selenidera being the most notable exception to this rule (hence their common name, "dichromatic toucanets"). However, the bills of female toucans are usually shorter, deeper and sometimes straighter, giving more of a "blocky" impression compared to male bills. The feathers in the genus containing the largest toucans are generally purple, with touches of white, yellow, and scarlet, and black. The underparts of the araçaris (smaller toucans) are yellow, crossed by one or more black or red bands. The toucanets have mostly green plumage with blue markings. Spot-billed toucanets have smaller bills than Ramphastos toucans. The colorful and large bill, which in some large species measures more than half the length of the body, is the hallmark of toucans. Despite its size, the toucan's bill is very light, being composed of bone struts filled with spongy tissue of keratin[4] between them, which take on the structure of a biofoam.[5] The bill has forward-facing serrations resembling teeth, which historically led naturalists to believe that toucans captured fish and were primarily carnivorous; today it is known that they eat mostly fruit. Researchers have discovered that the large bill of the toucan is a highly efficient thermoregulation system, though its size may still be advantageous in other ways.[6][7] It does aid in their feeding behavior (as they sit in one spot and reach for all fruit in range, thereby reducing energy expenditure), and it has also been theorized that the bill may intimidate smaller birds, so that the toucan may plunder nests undisturbed (see Diet below). The beak allows the bird to reach deep into tree-holes to access food unavailable to other birds, and also to ransack suspended nests built by smaller birds. A toucan's tongue is long (up to 15 cm (5.9 in)), narrow, grey, and singularly frayed on each side, adding to its sensitivity as a tasting organ. A structural complex probably unique to toucans involves the modification of several tail vertebrae. The rear three vertebrae are fused and attached to the spine by a ball and socket joint. Because of this, toucans may snap their tail forward until it touches the head.[8] This is the posture in which they sleep, often appearing simply as a ball of feathers, with the tip of the tail sticking out over the head. Distribution and habitat The black-billed mountain toucan is a mountain species Toucans are native to the Neotropics, from Southern Mexico, through Central America, into South America south to northern Argentina. They mostly live in the lowland tropics, but the mountain species from the genus Andigena reach temperate climates at high altitudes in the Andes and can be found up to the tree line.[9] For the most part the toucans are forest species, and restricted to primary forests. They will enter secondary forests to forage, but are limited to forests with large old trees that have holes large enough to breed in. Toucans are poor dispersers, particularly across water, and have not reached the West Indies. The only non-forest living toucan is the toco toucan, which is found in savannah with forest patches and open woodlands.[9] Behaviour and ecology Toucans are highly social and most species occur in groups of up to 20 or more birds for most of the time. Pairs may retire from the groups during the breeding season, then return with their offspring after the breeding season. Larger groups may form during irruptions, migration or around a particularly large fruiting tree.[9] Toucans often spend time sparring with their bills, tag-chasing and calling, during the long time it takes for fruit to digest. These behaviours may be related to maintenance of the pair bond or establishing dominance hierarchies, but the digestion time of fruit, which can take up to 75 minutes during which the toucan can't feed,[10] provide this social time.[9] Diet Toucans, like this red-breasted toucan (Ramphastos dicolorus), nest in hollows in trees Toucans are primarily frugivorous (fruit eating), but are opportunistically omnivorous and will take prey such as insects, smaller birds, and small lizards.[11] Captive toucans have been reported to hunt insects actively in their cages, and it is possible to keep toucans on an insect-only diet. They also plunder nests of smaller birds, taking eggs and nestlings.[12][13] This probably provides a crucial addition of protein to their diet. Certainly, apart from being systematically predatory as well as frugivorous, like many omnivorous birds, they particularly prefer animal food for feeding their chicks.[14] However, in their range, toucans are the dominant frugivores, and as such, play an extremely important ecological role as vectors for seed dispersal of fruiting trees.[15][16] Breeding behaviour Toucans nest in cavities in trees, and the presence of suitable trees is a habitat prerequisite for toucans. For the most part toucans don't excavate nesting cavities, although some green toucanets do. Calls Toucans make a variety of sounds. The very name of the bird (from Tupi) refers to its predominant frog-like croaking call, but toucans also make barking and growling sounds. They also use their bills to make tapping and clattering sounds. Mountain toucans are known for donkey-like braying.[17] Relationship with humans The toucans are, due to their unique appearance, among the most popular and well known birds in the world.[9] Across their native range they were hunted for food and also kept as pets, and their plumage and bills were used for decorations. In some places anyone that discovers a nest is deemed its owner and is entitled to sell the birds within.[citation needed] In the western world they were first popularised by John Gould who devoted two editions to a detailed monograph of the family.[9] The constellation Tucana, containing most of the Small Magellanic Cloud, is named after the toucan. The family has been used prominently in advertising. During the 1930s and 1940s Guinness (beer) advertising featured a toucan, as the black and white appearance of the bird mirrored the stout.[9] A cartoon toucan, Toucan Sam, has long been used as the mascot of Froot Loops breakfast cereal, and a toucan is the mascot of the Brazilian Social Democracy Party; its party members are called tucanos for this reason. Toucans have also been used in popular media. They have been used as the principal characters in Toucan Tecs, a 1992 UK television cartoon about two detectives named Zippi and Zac. In Dora the Explorer, the character Señor Túcan is a Spanish-speaking toucan who occasionally gives Dora and her friends advice. Tuca, the anthropomorphic title character of the 2019 show Tuca & Bertie is a Toucan, and the companion of the song thrush Bertie. In the 2016 Nintendo 3DS game Pokémon Sun and Moon, the Pokémon Toucannon and its previous evolutions were modeled after a Toco Toucan." (wikipedia.org) "A jungle is land covered with dense forest and tangled vegetation, usually in tropical climates. Application of the term has varied greatly during the past recent century.... Etymology The word jungle originates from the Sanskrit word jaṅgala (Sanskrit: जङ्गल), meaning rough and arid. It came into the English language via Hindi in the 18th century.[1][2] Jāṅgala has also been variously transcribed in English as jangal, jangla, jungal, and juṅgala.[citation needed] Although the Sanskrit word refers to dry land, it has been suggested that an Anglo-Indian interpretation led to its connotation as a dense "tangled thicket"[3] while others have argued that a cognate word in Urdu derived from Persian جنگل (Jangal), did refer to forests.[4] The term is prevalent in many languages of the Indian subcontinent, and the Iranian Plateau, where it is commonly used to refer to the plant growth replacing primeval forest or to the unkempt tropical vegetation that takes over abandoned areas.[5] History The jungle is the richest habitat on Earth. Over the intervals of time, different parts of tropical areas have provided a variety of flora and fauna, together with newer species discovered annually. Tropical jungles have been the home to indigenous peoples, who have shaped traditional cultures and civilizations based on the environment. Wildlife Because jungles occur on all inhabited landmasses and may incorporate numerous vegetation and land types in different climatic zones, the wildlife of jungles cannot be straightforwardly defined. Varying usage As dense and tangled vegetation Vine thicket, a typical tangled jungle, Australia One of the most common meanings of jungle is land overgrown with tangled vegetation at ground level, especially in the tropics. Typically such vegetation is sufficiently dense to hinder movement by humans, requiring that travellers cut their way through.[6][7][8] This definition draws a distinction between rainforest and jungle, since the understorey of rainforests is typically open of vegetation due to a lack of sunlight, and hence relatively easy to traverse.[9][10] Jungles may exist within, or at the borders of, tropical forests in areas where the woodland has been opened through natural disturbance such as hurricanes, or through human activity such as logging.[6][11][12] The successional vegetation that springs up following such disturbance, is dense and tangled and is a "typical" jungle. Jungle also typically forms along rainforest margins such as stream banks, once again due to the greater available light at ground level.[9] Monsoon forests and mangroves are commonly referred to as jungles of this type. Having a more open canopy than rainforests, monsoon forests typically have dense understoreys with numerous lianas and shrubs making movement difficult,[6][13][14] while the prop roots and low canopies of mangroves produce similar difficulties.[15][16] As moist forest Jungle lining a river bank in rainforest, Cameroon Because European explorers initially travelled through tropical forests largely by river, the dense tangled vegetation lining the stream banks gave a misleading impression that such jungle conditions existed throughout the entire forest. As a result, it was wrongly assumed that the entire forest was impenetrable jungle.[17][18] This in turn appears to have given rise to the second popular usage of jungle as virtually any humid tropical forest.[19] Jungle in this context is particularly associated with tropical rain forest,[8][20] but may extend to cloud forest, temperate rainforest, and mangroves[19][21] with no reference to the vegetation structure or the ease of travel. The terms "tropical forest" and "rainforest" have largely replaced "jungle" as the descriptor of humid tropical forests, a linguistic transition that has occurred since the 1970s. "Rainforest" itself did not appear in English dictionaries prior to the 1970s.[22] The word "jungle" accounted for over 80% of the terms used to refer to tropical forests in print media prior to the 1970s; since then it has been steadily replaced by "rainforest",[23] although "jungle" still remains in common use when referring to tropical rainforests.[22] As metaphor Use of the jungle to represent savageness and ferocity in popular culture. As a metaphor, jungle often refers to situations that are unruly or lawless, or where the only law is perceived to be "survival of the fittest". This reflects the view of "city people" that forests are such places. Upton Sinclair gave the title The Jungle (1906) to his famous book about the life of workers at the Chicago Stockyards, portraying the workers as being mercilessly exploited with no legal or other lawful recourse.[24] The term "The Law of the Jungle" is also used in a similar context, drawn from Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book (1894)—though in the society of jungle animals portrayed in that book and obviously meant as a metaphor for human society, that phrase referred to an intricate code of laws which Kipling describes in detail, and not at all to a lawless chaos. The word "jungle" itself carries connotations of untamed and uncontrollable nature and isolation from civilisation, along with the emotions that evokes: threat, confusion, powerlessness, disorientation and immobilisation.[23][25][26] The change from "jungle" to "rainforest" as the preferred term for describing tropical forests has been a response to an increasing perception of these forests as fragile and spiritual places, a viewpoint not in keeping with the darker connotations of "jungle".[23][27][28] Cultural scholars, especially post-colonial critics, often analyse the jungle within the concept of hierarchical domination and the demand western cultures often places on other cultures to conform to their standards of civilisation. For example: Edward Said notes that the Tarzan depicted by Johnny Weissmuller was a resident of the jungle representing the savage, untamed and wild, yet still a white master of it;[29] and in his essay "An Image of Africa" about Heart of Darkness Nigerian novelist and theorist Chinua Achebe notes how the jungle and Africa become the source of temptation for white European characters like Marlowe and Kurtz.[30] Former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak compared Israel to "a villa in the jungle", a comparison which had been often quoted in Israeli political debates. Barak's critics on the left side of Israeli politics strongly criticised the comparison. For example, Uri Avnery charged that comparing "civilised" Israel with "a villa" and Israel's Arab neighbors with the "wild beasts" of the "jungle" tends to throw the blame for the absence of peace on the "wild" Arab and Palestinian side, and absolve Israel of responsibility." (wikipedia.org) "The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at 23°26′11.0″ (or 23.43638°) N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at 23°26′11.0″ (or 23.43638°) S; these latitudes correspond to the axial tilt of the Earth. The tropics are also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone (see geographical zone). The tropics also includes everywhere on Earth which is a subsolar point (the Sun is directly overhead) at least once during the solar year. Thus the maximum latitudes of the tropics have the same value positive and negative. Likewise, they approximate, due to the earth not being a perfect sphere, the "angle" of the Earth's axial tilt. The "angle" itself is not perfectly fixed due chiefly to the influence of the moon, but the limits of tropics are a geographic convention, being an averaged form, and the variance is very small. In terms of climate, the tropics receive sunlight that is more direct than the rest of Earth and are generally hotter and wetter as they aren't affected as much by the solar seasons. The word "tropical" sometimes refers to this sort of climate in the zone rather than to the geographical zone itself. The tropical zone includes deserts and snow-capped mountains, which are not tropical in the climatic sense. The tropics are distinguished from the other climatic and biomatic regions of Earth, which are the middle latitudes and the polar regions on either side of the equatorial zone. The tropics constitute 40% of Earth's surface area[1] and contain 36% of Earth's landmass.[2] As of 2014, the region was home also to 40% of the world's population, and this figure was then projected to reach 50% by 2050. ... Etymology The word "tropic" comes from Ancient Greek τροπή (tropē), meaning "to turn" or "change direction". Seasons and climate A graph showing the zonally averaged monthly precipitation. The tropics receive more precipitation than higher latitudes. The precipitation maximum, which follows the solar equator through the year, is under the rising branch of the Hadley circulation; the sub-tropical minima are under the descending branch and cause the desert areas. Aerial view of Bora Bora, French Polynesia Tropical sunset over the sea in Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia "Tropical" is sometimes used in a general sense and feeling for a tropical climate to mean warm to hot and moist year-round, often with the sense of lush vegetation. Many tropical areas however have a dry and wet season. The wet season, rainy season or green season is the time of year, ranging from one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls.[3] Areas with wet seasons are disseminated across portions of the tropics and subtropics, some even in temperate regions.[4] Under the Köppen climate classification, for tropical climates, a wet-season month is defined as one or more months where average precipitation is 60 mm (2.4 in) or more.[5] Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons see a break in rainfall during mid-season when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough moves poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season;[6] typical vegetation in these areas ranges from moist seasonal tropical forests to savannahs. When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves and vegetation grows significantly due to the wet season supplementing flora, leading to crop yields late in the season. Floods and rains cause rivers to overflow their banks, and some animals to retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients are washed away and erosion increases. The incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. However, regions within the tropics may well not have a tropical climate. Under the Köppen climate classification, much of the area within the geographical tropics is classed not as "tropical" but as "dry" (arid or semi-arid), including the Sahara Desert, the Atacama Desert and Australian Outback. Also, there are alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mount Kilimanjaro, Puncak Jaya and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Perú. Ecosystems Coconut palms in the warm, tropical climate of northern Brazil Tropical plants and animals are those species native to the tropics. Tropical ecosystems may consist of tropical rainforests, seasonal tropical forests, dry (often deciduous) forests, spiny forests, deserts, savannahs, grasslands and other habitat types. There are often wide areas of biodiversity, and species endemism present, particularly in rainforests and seasonal forests. Some examples of important biodiversity and high endemism ecosystems are El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico, Costa Rican and Nicaraguan rainforests, Amazon Rainforest territories of several South American countries, Madagascar dry deciduous forests, the Waterberg Biosphere of South Africa, and eastern Madagascar rainforests. Often the soils of tropical forests are low in nutrient content, making them quite vulnerable to slash-and-burn deforestation techniques, which are sometimes an element of shifting cultivation agricultural systems. In biogeography, the tropics are divided into Paleotropics (Africa, Asia and Australia) and Neotropics (Caribbean, Central America, and South America). Together, they are sometimes referred to as the Pantropic. The system of biogeographic realms differs somewhat; the Neotropical realm includes both the Neotropics and temperate South America, and the Paleotropics correspond to the Afrotropical, Indomalayan, Oceanian, and tropical Australasian realms. Flora See also: Tropical garden Distribution of tropical wet forests Some well-known plants that are exclusively found or originate from the tropics or are often associated with the tropics include:     Stone fruits such as mangos, peaches, plums, avocado, etc     Citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, mandarins, etc     Banana trees     Bird of paradise flower Dragon Fruit, a tropical fruit from several different cacti originally from the Americas Palm trees     Giant Water Lily which can support up to 32 kilograms         Coconut trees     Ferns     Orchids     Papaya trees     Dragon fruit     Bamboo     Jackfruit     Giant Water Lily     Rubber Tree     Cacao     Coffee Tropicality Tropicality refers to the image of the tropics that people from outside the tropics have of the region, ranging from critical to verging on fetishism.[7] The idea of tropicality gained renewed interest in geographical discourse when French geographer Pierre Gourou published Les Pays Tropicaux (The Tropical World in English), in the late 1940s.[8] Juruá River in Brazil surrounded by dense tropical rainforests. The Brazilian rainforests are home to uncontacted tribes to this day. Tropicality encompassed two major images. One, is that the tropics represent a 'Garden of Eden', a heaven on Earth, a land of rich biodiversity or a tropical paradise.[9] The alternative is that the tropics consist of wild, unconquerable nature. The latter view was often discussed in old Western literature more so than the first.[9] Evidence suggests over time that the view of the tropics as such in popular literature has been supplanted by more well-rounded and sophisticated interpretations.[10] Western scholars tried to theorise why tropical areas were relatively more inhospitable to human civilisations than colder regions of the Northern Hemisphere. A popular explanation focused on the differences in climate. Tropical jungles and rainforests have much more humid and hotter weather than colder and drier temperaments of the Northern Hemisphere, giving to a more diverse biosphere. This theme led some scholars to suggest that humid hot climates correlate to human populations lacking control over nature e.g. 'the wild Amazonian rainforests'." (wikipedia.orG) "Pat Cadigan (born September 10, 1953) is a British-American science fiction author, whose work is most often identified with the cyberpunk movement. Her novels and short stories often explore the relationship between the human mind and technology. Her debut novel, Mindplayers, was nominated for the Philip K. Dick Award in 1988.... Early years Cadigan was born in Schenectady, New York, and grew up in Fitchburg, Massachusetts. In the 1960s Cadigan and a childhood friend "invented a whole secret life in which we were twins from the planet Venus", she told National Public Radio.[2] The Beatles "came to us for advice about their songs and how to deal with fame and other important matters," Cadigan says. "On occasion, they would ask us to use our highly developed shape-shifting ability to become them, and finish recording sessions and concert tours when they were too tired to go on themselves." The Venusian twins had other superpowers, that they would sometimes use to help out Superman, Wonder Woman and other heroes, she said.[2] Cadigan was educated at the University of Massachusetts Amherst in theater and the University of Kansas (KU), where she studied science fiction and science fiction writing under author and editor Prof. James Gunn.[citation needed] Cadigan met her first husband, Rufus Cadigan, while in college; they divorced shortly after she graduated from KU in 1975. That same year, Cadigan joined the convention committee for MidAmeriCon, the 34th World Science Fiction Convention being held in Kansas City, Missouri, over the 1976 Labor Day weekend; she served on the committee as the convention's guest liaison to writer guest of honor Robert A. Heinlein, as well as helped to develop programming for the convention. At the same time, she also worked for fantasy writer Tom Reamy at his Nickelodeon Graphics Arts Service studio, where she daily typset various jobs. She also prepared the type galleys for MidAmeriCon's various publications, including the convention's hardcover program book. Following Reamy's death on 4 November, 1977, Cadigan went to work as a writer for Kansas City, MO's Hallmark Cards company. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, she also edited the small press fantasy and science fiction magazines Chacal and later Shayol with her second husband, Arnie Fenner.[citation needed] Writing career Cadigan sold her first professional science fiction story in 1980; her success as an author encouraged her to become a full-time writer in 1987. She emigrated to London in the UK with her son Rob Fenner in 1996, where she is married to her third husband, Christopher Fowler (not to be confused with the author of the same name). She became a UK citizen in late 2014.[citation needed] Cadigan's first novel, Mindplayers, introduces what becomes the common theme to all her works: her stories blur the line between reality and perception by making the human mind a real, explorable place. Her second novel, Synners, expands upon the same theme; both feature a future where direct access to the mind via technology is possible. While her stories include many of the gritty, unvarnished characteristics of the cyberpunk genre, she further specializes in this exploration of the speculative relationship between technology and the perceptions of the human mind.[citation needed] Cadigan has won a number of awards. These include a 2013 Hugo Award for "The Girl-Thing Who Went Out for Sushi" in the Best Novelette category, presented at LoneStarCon 3, the 71st World Science Fiction Convention, held in San Antonio, Texas over the 2013 Labor Day weekend, and the Arthur C. Clarke Award both in 1992 and 1995 for her novels Synners and Fools.[citation needed] Robert A. Heinlein in part dedicated his 1982 novel Friday to Cadigan after becoming her friend, following her being the guest liaison to him for the 34th Worldcon in Kansas City.[3] Pat Cadigan in 2018 Health In 2013, Cadigan announced that she had been diagnosed with cancer.[4] She underwent surgery after an early diagnosis, suffered a relapse some years after, and recovered after extensive chemotherapy.[5] Published works     This section of a biography of a living person does not include any references or sources. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living people that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately. Find sources: "Pat Cadigan" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Series Deadpan Allie     Mindplayers, (Bantam Spectra Aug. 1987)/(Gollancz Feb. 1988); revised and expanded from the following linked stories:         "The Pathosfinder", (nv) The Berkley Showcase: New Writings in Science Fiction & Fantasy, ed. John Silbersack & Victoria Schochet, Berkley July 1981         "Nearly Departed", (ss) Asimov's June 1983; read online         "Variation on a Man", (ss) Omni Jan. 1984         "Lunatic Bridge", (nv) The Fifth Omni Book of Science Fiction, ed. Ellen Datlow, Zebra Books April 1987     "Dirty Work", (nv) Blood Is Not Enough, ed. Ellen Datlow, Morrow 1989     "A Lie for a Lie", (nv) Lethal Kisses, ed. Ellen Datlow, Millennium Dec. 1996 {aka Wild Justice} Dore Konstantin (TechnoCrime, Artificial Reality Division)     Tea from an Empty Cup, (Tor Oct. 1998); loosely based on the following linked novellas:         "Death in the Promised Land", (na) Omni Online March 1995 / Asimov’s Nov. 1995         "Tea from an Empty Cup", (na) Omni Online Oct. 1995 / Black Mist and Other Japanese Futures, ed. Orson Scott Card & Keith Ferrell, DAW Dec. 1997     Dervish is Digital, (Macmillan UK Oct. 2000) / (Tor July 2001) The Web     The Web: Avatar, (Dolphin April 1999); novella Other novels     Synners, (Bantam Spectra Feb. 1991) / (HarperCollins UK/Grafton Oct. 1991)     Fools, (Bantam Spectra Nov. 1992) / (HarperCollins UK March 1994) Chapbooks     My Brother's Keeper, (Pulphouse July 1992); novelette, reprinted from Asimov's Jan. 1988     Chalk, (This is Horror Nov. 2013); novelette Collections Patterns, (Ursus Sep. 1989)     Introduction, Bruce Sterling (in)     "Patterns", (ss) Omni Aug. 1987     "Eenie, Meenie, Ipsateenie", (ss) Shadows #6, ed. Charles L. Grant, Doubleday 1983     "Vengeance Is Yours", (ss) Omni May 1983     "The Day the Martels Got the Cable", (ss) F&SF Dec. 1982     "Roadside Rescue", (ss) Omni July 1985     "Rock On", (ss) Light Years and Dark, ed. Michael Bishop, Berkley 1984     "Heal", (vi) Omni April 1988     "Another One Hits the Road", (nv) F&SF Jan. 1984     "My Brother's Keeper", (nv) Asimov's Jan. 1988     "Pretty Boy Crossover", (ss) Asimov's Jan. 1986     "Two", (nv) F&SF Jan. 1988     "Angel", (ss) Asimov's May 1987; read online     "It Was the Heat", (ss) Tropical Chills, ed. Tim Sullivan, Avon 1988     "The Power and the Passion", (ss) Home By the Sea, (WSFA Press May 1992)     Introduction, Mike Resnick (in)     "Dirty Work", (nv) Blood Is Not Enough, ed. Ellen Datlow, Morrow 1989     "50 Ways to Improve Your Orgasm", (ss) Asimov's April 1992     "Dispatches from the Revolution", (nv) Asimov's July 1991; read online (collected in Mike Resnick's alternate history anthology Alternate Presidents)     "Home by the Sea", (nv) A Whisper of Blood, ed. Ellen Datlow, Morrow 1991; Read online     A Cadigan Bibliography, (bi) Dirty Work, (Mark V. Ziesing Sep. 1993)     Introduction, Storm Constantine (in)     "Dirty Work", (nv) Blood Is Not Enough, ed. Ellen Datlow, Morrow 1989     "Second Comings—Reasonable Rates", (ss) F&SF Feb. 1981     "The Sorceress in Spite of Herself", (ss) Asimov's Dec. 1982     "50 Ways to Improve Your Orgasm", (ss) Asimov's April 1992     "Mother's Milt", (ss) OMNI Best Science Fiction Two, ed. Ellen Datlow, OMNI Books 1992     "True Faces", (nv) F&SF April 1992     "New Life for Old", (ss) Aladdin: Master of the Lamp, ed. Mike Resnick & Martin H. Greenberg, DAW 1992     "The Coming of the Doll", (ss) F&SF June 1981     "The Pond", (ss) Fears, ed. Charles L. Grant, Berkley 1983     "The Boys in the Rain", (ss) Twilight Zone June 1987     "In the Dark", (ss) When the Music's Over, ed. Lewis Shiner, Bantam Spectra 1991     "Johnny Come Home", (ss) Omni June 1991     "Naming Names", (nv) Narrow Houses, ed. Peter Crowther, Little Brown UK 1992     "A Deal with God", (nv) Grails: Quests, Visitations and Other Occurrences, ed. Richard Gilliam, Martin H. Greenberg & Edward E. Kramer, Unnameable Press 1992     "Dispatches from the Revolution", (nv) Asimov's July 1991; read online     "No Prisoners", (nv) Alternate Kennedys, ed. Mike Resnick, Tor 1992     "Home by the Sea", (nv) A Whisper of Blood, ed. Ellen Datlow, Morrow 1991; Read online     "Lost Girls", (ss) Anthologies     Letters from Home, (Women's Press Aug. 1991)     The Ultimate Cyberpunk, (ibooks Sep. 2002) Media novelizations/companion novels     Lost in Space: Promised Land (HarperEntertainment April 1999/Thorndike Press July 1999; original novel/sequel to the movie Lost in Space)     Upgrade & Sensuous Cindy (Black Flame April 2004; novelization of two episodes from The Twilight Zone)     Cellular (Black Flame Aug. 2004; novelization of the movie Cellular)     Jason X (Black Flame Feb. 2005; novelization of the movie Jason X)     Jason X: The Experiment (Black Flame February 2005; original novel/sequel to the movie Jason X)     Alita: Battle Angel—Iron City (Titan Books, November 2018; original novel/prequel to the movie Alita: Battle Angel)     Alita: Battle Angel—The Official Movie Novelization (Titan Books, February 2019; novelization of the movie Alita: Battle Angel)     Alien 3: The Unproduced Screenplay (Titan Books, August 2021; novelization of the screenplay by William Gibson) Media tie-in non-fiction     The Making of Lost in Space (HarperPrism, May 1998; book on the making of the movie Lost in Space)     Resurrecting the Mummy: The Making of the Movie (Ebury Press June 1999; book on the making of the movie The Mummy)" (wikipedia.org)
  • Condition: Used
  • Condition: In very good, pre-owned condition. Please see photos and description.
  • Brand: Springbok
  • Year: 1981
  • Number of Pieces: 500 - 749 Pieces
  • Color: Multi-Color
  • Theme: Animals
  • Material: Cardboard
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United States

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